Documentation:Open Case Studies/FRST522/2022/Sinharaja Forest: History, Culture and Present Day

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Introduction

Sinharaja Forest Reserve is located in the South-West region of Sri Lanka and is considered to be the last viable area of tropical rainforest in the country[1]. It encompasses an area of 8,864 ha which is separated into 2,772 ha of Proposed Forest Reserve and 6,092 ha of Forest Reserve [1]. The island provides habitat to around 830 endemic species, and 139 species were recorded within the reserve including the presence of 16 rare species [1]. Furthermore, over 50% of mammals and lepidoptera are endemic within this reserve [1].

This Wiki page will discuss Sinharaja Forest along with the activities, both legal and illegal occurring there,followed by recommendations to better preserve this site.

Description

A photo of Sinharaja Forest in Sri Lanka by Ruchira159

Significant Dates

1875 – Declared the Sinharaja-Makalana Forest Reserve under the Waste Lands Ordinance[2]

1926 – over 9200 ha were placed under water protection within the Reserve[2]

1978 – Declared a UNESCCO Biosphere Reserve[2]

1988 – 7648 ha were considered a National Heritage Wilderness Area[2]. 8864 ha were declared as the World Heritage site with 6092 ha as forest reserve and 2772 ha proposed as a forest reserve[2]

1992 – The State Party proposed an extension of the forest area within the designated World Heritage Site area which would have increased the National Heritage Wilderness Area to 11187 ha[2]. It is not yet considered an extension of the World Heritage Site [3].

A picture of Kitul Palm by Rijksmuseum

Physical Features and Climate

The forest is characterized by ridges and valleys around the Rakwana mountain massif which drains into two rivers[2].  Within the reserve is a transition zone of two major types of rocks which are characteristic to the island; the South-Western group and the highland [2][4]. One interesting property is the presence of the Sinharaja Basic Zone [4] which consists of a particular outcropping of basic rock types [2]. The soils within this area are red-yellow in colour and podzolic in nature causing them to be impermeable[2].

The climatic conditions involve monsoons which occur between November to January from the Northeast and from May to July from the Southwest [2]. The average rainfall consists of over 2500mm without a dry season [5]. The overall temperature differs between 19 degrees C and 34 degrees C [6].

Flora and Fauna

Sinharaja is considered to be an undisturbed fragment of tropical rainforest in Sri Lanka and contains over 50% of Sri Lanka’s remaining forest[2]. There are three main types of forest found within this region; remnant Dipterocarp, Shorea forest and tropical montane[2]. Around 220 tree and woody climber species have been found and 40% of these have been recorded as low density in terms of population and 43% have a “restricted distribution” [5]. The island has 217 recorded endmic wet lowland tree species of which 64% have been found in Sinharaja and 16 species are considered rare[5] [7]. Within the vallied areas of this region are the trees that dominate the canopy; Dipterocarpus hispidus and D. zaylanicus which are found in a scattered formation due to the close proximity of plantations[2]. Shifting cultivation and plantations have led to the presence of secondary growth forests and scrub growth[8]. The higher elevations of Sinharaja contain the trasitional zone of tropical wet evergreen and tropical montane forests[2]. This area is also characterized by the presence of smaller trees[2]. Species here include Celtis cinnamomea, Carallia calycina and others[2]. Around 169 of these plants are used by the local villagers[9]. These species include Kitul Palm (Caryota urens) which is used to make a sugar substitute known as jaggery, and Weni wal (Coscinium fenestratum), a plant known for its medicinal uses [10][11].

The endmism of Sinharaja is high[2] [4], with 60 of the 270 recorded species being endemic[2]. The dominant predator within this region is the Sri Lankan leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya)[2]. Other endangered mammals include the purple-faced langur (Trachypithecus vetulus) and the Western Toque Macaque (Macaca sinica aurifrons)[2]. Sri Lanka’s endangered and rare birds are also found here and include the Green-billed Coucal (Centropus cholororhynchus) and the Sri Lanka Whistling Thrush (Myophonus blighi)[2]. In terms of reptile and amphibian species, the Rough-nosed horned lizard (Ceratophora aspera) is the rarest agamid specie[2]. Freshwater fish species are also threatened and include the Combtail (Belontia sinata) and the Smooth-breasted snakehead (Channa orientalis)[2].

Local People

The forest is surrounded by 32 villages which are located at the Southern, Northeastern, Northern, and Northwestern forest edges[2]. The remaining areas contain private residences and natural forest[2]. In 1993 the population around Sinharaja was estimated to be around 7000 people[2]. The main job opportunities include growing tea, rubber, coconut and rice along with a few spices such as cinnamon and cardamom[2]. The available resources to support tea plantations, such as government subsidies, has led to the transformation of a majority of the cropland into tea plantations[2]. It was found that roughly 8% of village households depend on forest products; both timber and non-timber[2]. The main forest activity is collection of Kitul palm syrup for the preparation of treacle and jaggery[2]. Other non-timber forest products include hal, rattan, honey and resin[2].

There are a few organizations that aim to manage and protect Sinharaja[2]. One is the Sinharaja Sumithuro (translation: Friends of Sinharaja) which was formed by the Forest Department and whose aim is to protect the forest[2]. Another is the Sinharaja Village Trust which is funded by International NGOs and aims to provide training concerning private enterprise, linking it to improving biodiversity and ecotourism [12].

Deforestation and Other Threats

Deforestation is defined as the clearing of forested land for some purpose[13]. Over history, forests have been cleared for agricultural activities and for wood products[13]. This practice has altered landscapes[13]. Currently, the highest amount of deforestation is taking place within tropical rainforests and this can lead to the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere[13]. Deforestation also presents a threat to biodiversity as animal habitats are lost[13]. Lastly, deforestation can lead to erosion causing a radical change in the environment[13].

Currently, Sri Lanka forest cover has drastically decreased from 29.7% to 16.5% in 2019 [14]. Sinharaja specifically is facing a deforestation crisis due to the building of hotels[14]. An investigation by the Colombo Telegraph (2021)[14] found that local authorities were unaware of the deforestation occurring within Sinharaja in 2016[14]. However, five years later they found that the Department of Wildlife Conservation made the decision to purchase the privately owned lands around Sinharaja that contain forest cover[14]. A spokesperson for the Department of Wildlife Conservation mentioned that around 400 ha have been acquired as private lands around the reserve area[14]. Furthermore the authors write that the Department does not have the supplies to prevent deforestation[14].  

According to the IUCN[15], the overall threats facing Sinharaja pose significant concern[15]. Illegal activities such as encroachment for agricultural purposes, gem mining, fires, development of hydropower and the construction of roadways have led to habitat destruction[15]. Conservation groups have also reported the presence of hunting and logging in this area[15]. Furthermore, tea cultivation at the edge of the forest may cause pollution of water sources in Sinharaja through the use of agrochemicals, thus negatively impacting aquatic wildlife[15]. Forest restoration involves the use of exotic plants such as Mahogany (Sweitenia macrophulla) which can negatively impact the native ecology of the Forest Reserve[15].

A large majority of Sri Lanka’s forests are owned by the State and thus the management and protection fall under government ministries; The Forest Department and the Department of Wildlife Conservation[14]. The Constitution contains many legislatures which considers deforestation practices as an offence while recognizing environmental protection as a responsibility[14]. Article 27 of the Constitution suggests that it is the job of the state to protect the environment, leaving it in a way that it benefits the communities[14]. However, article 28 seems to declare the opposite, imposing the obligation of environmental protection on the public[14].

Nature-based Tourism and Community Involvement

Over the years and across the world, nature-based tourism has become increasingly popular [16]. Typically, this practiced was used to describe tourism based in natural environments, however, there has been some discourse on the exact meaning [17]. Ecotourism exists within this umbrella as it also focuses on the natural environment, however the purpose of ecotourism is education and conservation[18].

Nature based tourism can positively impact wildlife and habitats when managed correctly, such as having tourists engage in conservation activities[19]. Furthermore, when tourists interact positively with their environment they can develop an emotional relationship with said environment [20], thus creating appreciation along with conservation awareness [21]. In addition to this, tourists may be more inclined to donate and support conservation projects within their visited area[22].

While positives of nature-based tourism do exist, research has also shown evidence of negative effects on environment which are further enhanced by the fact that many nature-based tourism sites are situated in protected or sensitive areas [23].

In Sinharaja, there are four main trails; the Giant Nawada Tree trail, Mulawella trail, Gallenyaya (translation: rock caves), and Sinhagala (Lion rock) [24]. These trails have around 15000 tourists per year[24].

Sinharaja has also become popular for bird watchers, as it contains a high number of endemic bird species[24]. 83% of European tourists visit Sinharaja for bird watching activities [24]. A study by Alwis, Perera and Dayawansa (2016)[25] showed the negative impacts of human disturbance caused by recreational activities on bird populations in Sinharaja. They found that these disturbances caused birds to avoid the forest edges[25].

Domestic tourism also occurs in Sinharaja[24]. These tourists are not interested in learning about the flora and fauna of their country, rather they are seeking an escape from city life [24]. Some city-dwellers may also want to experience life as a villager[24].

One particular site, the Kudawa-Sinharaja site, which is located in the northern part of the rainforest, is one of the most popular ecotourism sites and was selected by the Forest Department for the implementation of CBET (community based ecotourism) [24]. The idea behind this project is to empower local communities while providing sustainable forest management[24].

Before the idea of ecotourism was introduced the Kudawa Grama Niladari division (GND) was a society that utilized indigenous systems[24]. However, capitalism was introduced with CBET leading to a change in their value systems[24]. The Kudawa GND are in close proximity to the Kudawa-Sinharaja ecotourism entrance which allows locals to participate in tourism activities and community participation is higher in this area compared to the participation of communities located near the other entrances[24]. The Kudawa-Sinharaja entrance also provides better facilities[24].

One of the most popular ecotourism activities for villagers is becoming a tour guide[24]. The Forest Department introduced this practice as a way to prevent the locals from participating in illegal activities such as kitul tapping and the collection of non-timber forest products[24]. In the past, families of tour guides, namely the parents and grandparents, would participate in these illegal activities[24]. However, the recent generations of tour guides are working as conservationists[24].

36% of the Kudawa GND community is involved in CBET for their livelihood[24]. Most males were found to participate only part-time in ecotourism as their main occupation is tea cultivation[24]. Research found that families involved in ecotourism earned higher incomes in comparison to those that were not involved[24].

Lastly, following independence, the Sri Lankan government promoted international tourism which led to a series of problems such as rural poverty and environmental degradation[24]. Therefore, the government proposed the practice of ecotourism and CBET [26].

Political Powers and Colonialism

The Sri Lanka Freedom Party was elected to power in 1970 and this government focused on industrialization and increased economic prosperity [27]. The SLFP seemed to disregard forest management or conservation, instead encouraging the local communities to engage in agricultural practices to farm grains and other crops[24]. Sinharaja’s local communities therefore began to clear the land for farming, thus increasing forest degradation [28].

During the time when Sri Lanka was under European rule, there was high demand around the world for spices and crops found in Asia[24]. The colonial rulers, therefore began to clear forested land for plantations[29][30]. It was then that Sinharaja became a significant attraction to the European settlers [24]. The Portuguese, who ruled from 1505 to 1658 began this system of degradation, clearing sections of Sinharaja for commercial crops[31]. Following the Portuguese, the Dutch overtook the island from 1658 to 1796 and began investigating the commercial value of Sinharaja's species[24]. Finally, the British who ruled from 1796 to 1948 also saw the marketable value of Sinharaja’s timber products[24]. It can thus be argued that the beginning of forest degradation on the island began with colonial roots and if colonial powers did not exist in Sri Lanka’s history, then perhaps the forest would not be as degraded today.

Recommendations

The protection of Sinharaja needs to be taken seriously. Conservation education should be at the forefront of future actions to be taken. This type of education can help people to gain more appreciation for their natural world [32]. This growing appreciation can allow people to want to protect and conserve nature for the future[32].

Proper enforcement of laws preventing illegal activities and better overall management are also needed [33]. Stakeholders need to be more engaged[33] and local communities should be more engaged in decision making processes [34].

The above mentioned strategies may take a considerable amount of time and effort to implement. However, it would be beneficial to the country as a whole.





This conservation resource was created by Course:FRST522.


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 UNESCO World Heritage Convention (n.d.). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 World Heritage Datasheet (2017). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  3. ↑ Forest Dept., 2003 as cited in World Heritage Datasheet, 2017 (2017). "Sinharaha Forest Reserve".CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 UNESCO World Heritage Convention (n.d.). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Gunatilleke & Gunatilleke, 1983 as cited in World Heritage Datasheet, 2017 (2017). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ de Zoysa and Raheem, 1987 as cited in World Heritage Datasheet (2017). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  7. ↑ Peeris, 1975 as cited in World Heritage Datasheet (2017). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  8. ↑ de Rosayro, 1954 as cited in World Heritage Datasheet (2017). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  9. ↑ Manikrama, 1993 as cited in World Heritage Datasheet (2017). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  10. ↑ Gunatilleke et al., 1994 as cited in World Heritage Datasheet (2017). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  11. ↑ Lubowski, 1996 as cited in World Heritage Datasheet (2017). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  12. ↑ de Zoysa & Simon, 1999 as cited in World Heritage Datasheet (2017). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 National Geographic Society (n.d.). "Deforestation".
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 Satharasinghe, Methmi; Perera; Amarasinghe, Upuli (March 26, 2021). "The Deforestation in Sinharaja Rainforest Reserve * Environment Law in Sri Lanka". Unknown parameter |Last name 2= ignored (help)
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 IUCN World Heritage Outlook (n.d.). "Sinharaja Forest Reserve".
  16. ↑ Balmford et al., 2009; Buckley, 2000; Newsome, Moore, & Dowling, 2012 as cited in Sumanapala and Wolf, 2020 (2020). "Think globally, act locally: Current understanding and future directions for nature-based tourism research in Sri Lanka".CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ HaySmith & Hunt, 1995 as cited in Sumanpala and Wolf, 2020 (2020). "Think globally, act locally: Current understanding and future directions for nature-based tourism research in Sri Lanka".CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ↑ Orams 2001 as cited in Sumanapala and Wolf, 2020 (2020). "Think globally, act locally: Current understanding and future directions for nature-based tourism research in Sri Lanka".
  19. ↑ Green & Higginbottom, 2001 as cited in Sumanapala and Wolf, 2020 (2020). "Think globally, act locally: Current understanding and future directions for nature-based tourism research in Sri Lanka".CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ Oberbillig, 2000 as cited in Sumanapala and Wolf (2020). "Think globally, act locally: Current understanding and future directions for nature-based tourism research in Sri Lanka".
  21. ↑ Duff, 1993 as cited in Sumanapala and Wolf, 2020 (2020). "Think globally, act locally: Current understanding and future directions for nature-based tourism research in Sri Lanka".CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ Sumanapala, Daminda; Wolf, Isabelle (December 2020). "Think globally, act locally: Current understanding and future directions for nature-based tourism research in Sri Lanka".
  23. ↑ Buckley, 2004 as cited in Sumanapala and Wolf (2020). "Think globally, act locally: Current understanding and future directions for nature-based tourism research in Sri Lanka".
  24. ↑ 24.00 24.01 24.02 24.03 24.04 24.05 24.06 24.07 24.08 24.09 24.10 24.11 24.12 24.13 24.14 24.15 24.16 24.17 24.18 24.19 24.20 24.21 24.22 24.23 24.24 24.25 Kumara, Chaminda (2016). "Challenges to Implementing Community Based Ecotourism (CBET) as a Bottom up Development Approach in the Sinharaja Rain Forest (Sri Lanka)" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Alwis, Nilusha; Perera, Priyan; Dayawansa, Nihal (2016). "Response of tropical avifauna to visitor recreational disturbances: a case study from the Sinharaja World Heritage Forest, Sri Lanka".
  26. ↑ Fernando & Meedeniya, 2009; Hennayaka, 2006; Laksiri, 2007 as cited in Konara, 2016 (2016). "Challenges to Implementing Community Based Ecotourism (CBET) as a Bottom up Development Approach in the Sinharaja Rain Forest (Sri Lanka)" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ↑ Rajapatirana, 1988 as cited in Konara, 2016, 2016. "Challenges to Implementing Community Based Ecotourism (CBET) as a Bottom up Development Approach in the Sinharaja Rain Forest (Sri Lanka)" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  28. ↑ Hoffmann, 1972; Kumara, 2013 as cited in Konara, 2016 (2016). "Challenges to Implementing Community Based Ecotourism (CBET) as a Bottom up Development Approach in the Sinharaja Rain Forest (Sri Lanka)" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ↑ de Zoysa, 2001 as cited in Konara, 2016 (2016). "Challenges to Implementing Community Based Ecotourism (CBET) as a Bottom up Development Approach in the Sinharaja Rain Forest (Sri Lanka)" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ↑ Abesinghe, 1966 as cited in Konara (2016). "Abesinghe, 1966; de Zoysa, 2001 as cited in Konara, 2017" (PDF).
  31. ↑ de Zoysa & Raheem, 1993 as cited in Konara (2016). "Challenges to Implementing Community Based Ecotourism (CBET) as a Bottom up Development Approach in the Sinharaja Rain Forest (Sri Lanka)" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 USDA Forest Service (n.d.). "Conservation Education".
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Guatilleke, Nimal; Pethiyagoda, Rohan (January 2008). "Biodiversity of Sri Lanka".
  34. ↑ The World Bank (June 4, 2021). "Sri Lanka: Protecting and Conserving Natural Capital While Boosting Livelihoods for Local Communities".
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