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Course:CONS200/2025WT2/BC freshwater salmon habitat challenges

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Chinook Salmon

Introduction

Sockeye Salmon

BC salmon have been facing many challenges in recent years, ongoing changes due to climate change[1]. Climate change has been altering the spawning times and salmon traverse back to their home streams.[2] Many conservationists are facing challenges protecting BC’s freshwater bodies, especially with changing human impacts on estuaries, which are essential to the start of salmon migration[3] Other than estuaries it is important to look at the factor of dams and how that affects the downhill streams - without a fishway salmon have difficulties returning to their home stream.[4] Along with both changing climates disease seems to be spreading throughout the salmon populations, and both are heavily affecting salmon spawning rates. [5] Despite these challenging factors, there are improvements in the way conservation tactics have been advancing, many of which are coming from local Indigenous communities. [6]Salmon are a vital part of BC’s ecosystem; many other animals rely on salmon along with traditional values from Indigenous peoples.[7] Although these may seem like unstoppable forces, there have been many new efforts and techniques surrounding salmon spawning.[8]

Salmon Populations In British Columbia

Coho Salmon
Chum Salmon

There are five types of salmon in BC - Chinook, Coho, Chum, Pink and Sockeye.[9] Currently most all of the pacific salmon are in decline and 39 populations of salmon are currently classified at risk by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC).[10]

Habitat Challenges

Seton River British Columbia

Dams

Dams are one of Salmons biggest challenges to pass through. Salmon follow pheromones in the water to determine their natal path back to their spawning grounds.[11] Dams can lead to major dilution of natural water, which makes it even harder for salmon to find their way home. The dams also create a physical barrier.[11]Fishways are used to encourage fish mobilization through dams. [11]Using a combination of pools, channels and steps they provide the opportunity for fish to continue their natural migration. Unfortunately some dams were not built with fishways and this fully stops the salmon in their path and ending certain populations.[11] Some dams have built in fishways which can be helpful for the salmon, but depending on the fishway they can be quite difficult to use for different salmon types.[11]

Climate Change

British Columbia's climate has been changing, and throughout the past few years the weather has been following more extreme trends.[12] Because of these dynamic weather changes and the addition of some streams almost completely drying up, salmon have been staying in the ocean for much longer than usual.[13] The unusual timing is not only effecting the salmon offspring numbers- but also the size of the salmon.[14]The effects of climate change that are most relevant to Fraser River salmon include warming of freshwater, which leads to altered hydrology in spawning rivers, reduced productivity in nursery habitats, and changed distribution of predator and prey species.[14] The reduction of productivity mainly lies on the salmon eggs as they are highly susceptible to temperature change, so the rise in temperature lowers the viability of the eggs.[14]

Landslides

The current changing climate is following extreme trends of rainfall in BC's wet season.[12] The summers are getting increasingly more dry and heavy rainfall following after, which in turn has been creating more landslides.[12] Another major issue with this is that these landslides are happening early in the season when the water are warmer.[15]The rising temperature of the Fraser River is already nearly lethal for the salmon, and landslides hold the fish back from entering cooler glacier-fed waters, even if my a few days this could be catastrophic.[15] The debris in the water from the landslide can also alter the salmons senses, making it more difficult to find their natal pathway.[15] In 2019, a landslide partially blocked the Fraser River and created an impassable barrier to key salmon populations that spawn in the Upper Fraser watershed.[15] Luckily researchers along with the wildlife federation were able to use a salmon cannon to get these fish across the obstruction, then transporting them on a truck until they could build a fishway.[15]This may end up being the new norm for BC salmon.

Seton River: Case Study

Flow modification is a huge disturbance to salmon, as salmon follow their natal path.[11] BC Hydro’s Seton Dam, is one of many that salmon have to pass through to find their way back to spawning grounds.[11] Although the Seton Dam originally built a small slot for salmon to migrate through, the nuance of creating useful fishways had not yet been discovered. Although there was an available pathway for the salmon, it would later be found that salmon struggled to find the fish way opening even more so there were other major deterrents for the salmon.[11] The hydroelectric developments diverted river pathways which diluted natal path water, making it even harder for the salmon to return to spawning grounds[11].

Climate change also showed a major effect on salmon finding their natal pathway. In the study fish that were exposed to these warmer temperatures were less likely to locate, enter and pass the fishway[4]. With longer periods of warm weather and dry spells, British Columbias sensitive climate's bear a higher evaporative demand[12]. This has extremely concerning implications for the salmon populations.

Sq,awsitkʷ Okanagan River: Case Study Dams & Infrastructure

The Okanagan river is now considered the 3rd most endangered river in Canada.[16] The presence of dams on the Okanagan river has reduced Sockeye Salmon populations to a small fraction of what they used to be.[8] The Okanagan River sockeye population is one of only two remaining populations of sockeye salmon in the international Columbia River Basin[17]. Historically, chinook, coho, chum and steelhead were also indigenous salmon species in the Columbia River system, including the Okanagan Basin, but today they are either extinct or face extirpation.[17] Sq,awsitkʷ also known as Okanagan River is a main tributary of the Columbia River, which also has had major negative impacts on salmon due to dams, as salmon run upstream from the Columbia river there are many dams blocking the fish from following their natal path through to the okanagan[8], but Dams are not the only issue. Approximately 84% (30.4 km) of the okanagan river has been channelized,straightened, narrowed and dyked, and as a result, the entire river length has been reduced by 50%[8] Throughout time there have been serveral different conservation efforts to restore salmon in these spawning grounds.[8] New hybridized fishways were installed in dams on the columbia river heading into the tributary of the okanagan river.[18] There have also been major community led projects to help restore the riparian areas.[19] Historically the temperatures in this river have been rising, this also correlates highly with the decline in salmon migration numbers.[20] Higher temperatures also have direct causation on oxygen in water, this highly affects salmon migration and spawning.[21] Efforts are currently being put in place to restore oxygen to the osoyoos lake the main water basin which flows into the okanagan river.[21] While these implications for the salmon are quite dire the Department of Fisheries and Oceans has been directly helping this effort.[21]

Pesticides / Contaminants

Pesticides and other agricultural additives pose a huge threat to freshwater bodies. These materials leech into ground water and find their way to rivers and lakes which threaten salmon populations.[22]Although there are government controls on contaminants and regulations designed for specific waste discharges. These actions, do not protect fish like salmon, which encounter many different contaminants during extensive migrations.[22]

Okanagan Watersheds: Case Study

Dam at Okanagan Falls

The Okanagan valley is saturated with farm land, with this land comes major implications to the chemicals used flowing into the ground water.[23] The study area of sampling water extends from Osoyoos Lake to Deep Creek also including the Similkameen River, a tributary of the Okanagan River[23] There was found to be concentrations of DDT and its breakdown products including 80 different kinds of pesticides.[23] These concentrations were found to be higher in the spring time in which more run off from rainfall gets pushed into the waterways.[23] Soluble Cu++ ion was detected in one September runoff water sample at Deep Creek in Armstrong. The detected concentration of 0.011 mg/L is toxic to rainbow trout.[23] Salmon are particularly vulnerable to pesticide impacts, as they spend a large part of their life in freshwater.[24]

Current Mitigation Efforts

Mitigation efforts are crucial in protecting the freshwater habitats essential for BC salmon's lifespans.

Legislation

The Canadian government holds the power to control and manage fish habitats. One can be criminalized for causing harm or destroying fish habitats. [25] Under the Fisheries Act, any activity that causes harmful alteration, disruption, or destruction (HADD) of fish habitats is not allowed unless authorized.[26] In 1997, BC introduced the B.C. Fish Protection Act, which requires local governments to provide standardized stream protections. [25]The Riparian Areas Protection Regulation (RAPR) makes sure that any land development happening near salmon-bearing streams follows strict environmental guidelines. The goal is to lessen the effects of urbanization and deforestation on key fish habitats, keeping these areas as healthy as possible for salmon. [27]

February 29th 2016 The Water Sustainability Act was passed.[28] This new act requires licenses for ground water use, this adds extra regulations and protections to water bodies.[28] This also included new Dam regulations which subject operations near and on Dams to much higher scrutiny, adding routine pollutant tests to the water[28]. This act helps keep the rivers and ground water cleaner and safer for use, which in turn helps the salmon populations.

Best Management Practices (BMPs)

BMPs are guidelines that help clients reach their goals, while ensuring that all activities are played out in consideration of the consequences to environmental values. [29] For salmon habitats, there are multiple BMPs, which include:

  • Guidelines for the collection and analysis of fish and fish habitat data for the purpose of assessing impacts from small hydropower projects in British Columbia [30]
  • Requirements and Best Management Practices for Making Changes In and About A Stream in British Columbia. [31]
  • Technical Guidance on Applications for WSA Section 11 Change Approval: Small Craft Harbours in the Thompson-Okanagan Region. [32]
  • Working Around Water [33]

All of these documents/websites provide guidelines for optimal management practices in and around riparian habitats in BC.

Water Reservoirs

A large impact of climate change in BC is hotter, drier summers,[34] which can be harmful to salmon, as the province will be facing drought conditions. In this case, water reservoirs can make a difference, and give the opportunity for released water during critical periods. [35]

Life Cycle Fish-Habitat Models

Fish life cycle and fish habitat models have been created with the intention of management in freshwater ecosystems. Models range from simple to extremely complex in design, and they have been used to estimate life-stage survival rates, identify habitat limits, and measure abundance and extinction. Overall, modelling provides useful and essential information for restoration planning. [36]

Watershed Evaluations

Watershed assessments comprise of the evaluation of the following processes: Hydrology, sediment supply, nutrients, flow, water dynamics and quality, habitat alteration, and changes in biota. Watershed assessments can also include topics such as topology and geography. The aim of these assessments is to determine degraded habitat, biota loss, and disrupted processes, and this research can be put towards determining the best course of action for salmon habitat restoration opportunities. [36]

Riparian Restoration - Osoyoos Lake: Case Study

Temperatures have been rising in BC[12]. This has had major implications on the Okanagan River and the surrounding riparian areas.[21] As temperatures rise big bodies of water struggle to stay oxygenated[21] This process can speed up eutrophication process and further de-oxygenate the water[21]. This can cause devastating amounts of casualties among fish populations.[21] Currently local community and the Department of Ocean and Fisheries are working on restoring the oxygen to the lake[21]. Along with 80% of the spawning grounds being destroyed, Salmon have been forced to compete with the invasive species that was added in the 1960's the mysis shrimp[37]. This area is currently being watched carefully to try and help save the salmon from extirpation[37] Restocking the river and lakes with salmon has been the new normal[37].

Indigenous Conservation

Salmon are a keystone species, meaning they play a crucial role in supporting the functionality within their ecosystems. The loss of salmon would drastically change the ecosystem. As predators, salmon help control populations and as prey they serve as a source of protein to large carnivores such as bears. They serve as essential nutrient transporters between aquatic and riparian areas, enriching the environments they inhabit.[38] Beyond their ecological importance, salmon hold deep cultural significance for the Indigenous communities of British Columbia. For thousands of years, Indigenous peoples have harvested salmon for food and traditional practices. The abundance and migration patterns of salmon are closely tied to the way of life of the St’át’imc people and other Indigenous communities who depend on them.[39]

The St’át’imc harvest salmon from the Fraser River watershed. Of the 24 people interviewed, the average number of years spent fishing was 33 highlighting the importance of the salmon to their communities way of life. For the St’át’imc, salmon are integral to both survival and cultural identity. However, with rising atmospheric and water temperatures, the behaviour of salmon has become unpredictable forcing fishing communities to adapt. The people are concerned that nature is not being respected consequently meaning that Mother Nature may no longer provide.[39] Indigenous peoples are known for their practices of reciprocity with the natural world, and have long been leaders in conservation efforts.[6]

Indigenous lands have proven to support biodiversity as effectively and in some cases better than protected areas.[40] This demonstrates the efficiency of their land stewardship. It is important that we respectfully collect data on their management tactics so we can apply these practices on other land. We must consult Indigenous communities in future conservation efforts, and grant them rights over their ancestral lands allowing them to continue passing down their sustainable practices.[6] By doing so, we will foster a stronger community and environment.

Okanagan & Similikameen Restoration Projects - Case Study

Mission Creek restoration Phase I restoration began in 2015 in Mission Creek downstream of Casorso Road, where 540 m of the southern dike trail was setback.[37] This setback resulted in 18,000 m2 floodplain re-engagement and side channel reconnection. In addition, habitat features were installed and four notch pools were excavated in left bank to re-meander the stream.[17] Adaptive management occurred in 2018 to improve side channel flow patterns and remove accumulated sediment. In 2019, boulder clusters in two different formations were installed to direct flow into meander notch 2 and to increase habitat complexity.[17]

Many different Riparian restoration projects have been coming in effect over the past few years, in order to save the Okanagan river. One of which was the Ginty's Pond restoration. This wetland has been drying up over the past years and becoming subject to eutrophication.[16]

In 2020, SILT, the (now) BC Ministry of Land, Water and Resource Stewardship (MLWRS), the Lower Similkameen Indian Band (LSIB), and the BC Wildlife Federation (BCWF) decided to collaborate to restore Ginty’s Pond, with substantive funding provided by Environment and Climate Change Canada, the Province of BC, and the Real Estate Foundation of BC.[16] This Team excavated the area both deepening and widening the pond, then planted 1,700 native trees and shrubs[16].

kł cp̓əlk̓ stim̓ Hatchery

This Hatchery is a major restoration initiative and is part of a long‐term program to restore the historical range of Sockeye in the upper Okanagan watershed, Okanagan Lake, and Skaha Lake systems, and a region of the Columbia River Basin.[41] With a holistic restoration approach they hope to re-establish important nutrients for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems while creating opportunities for the Sylix Okanagan people to form connections to the land through renewal.[41]

Conclusion

Currently in British Columbia, Salmon are facing an array of different challenges. As human activity, the resulting infrastructure, and the drastic effects of climate change spread into salmon habitats, populations are becoming increasingly at risk[1]. These harmful factors drastically impact their odds of survival, and ability to reproduce. These salmon are essential within British Columbias ecosystems, culture and economy. These fish act as a keystone species that balance a range of environmental functions and hold many values within the local Indigenous communities. If we don't act upon these issues, the negative impacts stretch far beyond the scope of salmon populations in BC, as they are a keystone species.[38] Because salmon play such a large role in the ecosystems of BC, successful mitigation is essential to the conservation efforts of the all species involved.

In the future, due to current mitigation efforts and restoration projects, especially those of Indigenous communities in BC, the fate for BC salmon is hopeful. Using a continuing collaboration with Indigenous communities [6], governmental and scientific knowledge systems will help advance the conservation of the Salmon populations in BC [8].

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Reid, A.J., Carlson, A.K., Creed, I.F., Eliason, E.J., Gell, P.A., Johnson, P.T.J., Kidd, K.A., MacCormack, T.J., Olden, J.D., Ormerod, S.J., Smol, J.P., Taylor, W.W., Tockner, K., Vermaire, J.C., Dudgeon, D. and Cooke, S.J. (2019), Emerging threats and persistent conservation challenges for freshwater biodiversity. Biol Rev, 94: 849-873. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12480
  2. ↑ Josephine C. Iacarella and J. Daniel Weller (2024) Predicting favourable streams for anadromous salmon spawning and natal rearing under climate change Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 81: 1–13 (2024) dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2023-0096
  3. ↑ Hodgson EE, Wilson SM, Moore JW. Changing estuaries and impacts on juvenile salmon: A systematic review. Glob Change Biol. 2020; 26: 1986–2001. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14997 O'Sullivan, A. M., & Alex, K. I. (2024). Establishing present-day Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka|sćwin) spawning capacity in the highly impacted ʷ
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Bett, N. N., Hinch, S. G., Bass, A. L., Braun, D. C., Burnett, N. J., Casselman, M. T., . . . Zhu, D. Z. (2022). Using an integrative research approach to improve fish migrations in regulated rivers: A case study on pacific salmon in the seton river, canada. Hydrobiologia, 849(2), 385-405. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-020-04371-2
  5. ↑ Teffer AK, Hinch SG, Miller KM, Patterson DA, Farrell AP, Cooke SJ, Bass AL, Szekeres P, Juanes F. Capture severity, infectious disease processes and sex influence post-release mortality of sockeye salmon bycatch. Conserv Physiol. 2017 Mar 28;5(1):cox017. doi:10.1093/conphys/cox017  PMID: 28852514; PMCID: PMC5569998.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 S.E. Cannon, J.W. Moore, M.S. Adams, T. Degai, E. Griggs, J. Griggs, T. Marsden, A.J. Reid, N. Sainsbury, K.M. Stirling, Axdii A. Yee S. Barnes, R. Benson, D. Burrows, Gala'game R. Chamberlin, B. Charley, D. Dick, A.T. Duncan, Kung Kayangas M. Liddle, M. Paul, N. Paul Prince, C. Scotnicki, K. Speck, J. Squakin, C. Van Der Minne, J. Walkus, K. West, Kii'iljuus B. Wilson, and The Indigenous Data Sovereignty Workshop Collective. 2024. Taking care of knowledge, taking care of salmon: towards Indigenous data sovereignty in an era of climate change and cumulative effects. FACETS.9: 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2023-0135
  7. ↑ Efford, M., Taft, S., Morin, J., George, M., George, M., Cavers, H., Hilsden, J., Paskulin, L., Loewen, D., Zhu, J., Christensen, V., & Speller, C. (2023). Archaeology demonstrates sustainable ancestral Coast Salish salmon stewardship over thousands of years. PloS one, 18(8), e0289797. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289797
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 O'Sullivan, A. M., &  Alex, K. I. (2024).  Establishing present-day Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka|sćwin) spawning capacity in the highly impacted ʷ|Okanagan River to guide population conservation and restoration. River Research and Applications,  40(7),  1195–1204. https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.4293
  9. ↑ "BC Salmon 5 species". BCSalmon.ca.
  10. ↑ "BC gov.news declining wild pacific salmon".
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 Bett, N. N., Hinch, S. G., Bass, A. L., Braun, D. C., Burnett, N. J., Casselman, M. T., . . . Zhu, D. Z. (2022). Using an integrative research approach to improve fish migrations in regulated rivers: A case study on pacific salmon in the seton river, canada. Hydrobiologia, 849(2), 385-405. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-020-04371-2
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Parisien, M.-A., Barber, Q. E., Bourbonnais, M. L., Daniels, L. D., Flannigan, M. D., Gray, R. W., Hoffman, K. M., Jain, P., Stephens, S. L., Taylor, S. W., & Whitman, E. (2023). Abrupt, climate-induced increase in wildfires in British Columbia since the mid-2000s.
  13. ↑ Abdul-AzizOmar I., MantuaNathan J., and MyersKatherine W.. 2011. Potential climate change impacts on thermal habitats of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) in the North Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 68(9): 1660-1680. https://doi.org/10.1139/f2011-079
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 HealeyMichael. 2011. The cumulative impacts of climate change on Fraser River sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) and implications for management. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 68(4): 718-737. https://doi.org/10.1139/f2011-010
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Joannou, A. (2024, Aug 02). Massive B.C. landslide could mean new barriers for struggling salmon. The Canadian Press Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/wire-feeds/massive-b-c-landslide-could-mean-new-barriers/docview/3087761883/se-2
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 "Silt Project Okanagan River".
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 "Okanagan Nation Alliance".
  18. ↑ C. T. Boggs, M. L. Keefer, C. A. Peery, T. C. Bjornn, L. C. Stuehrenberg, Fallback, Reascension, and Adjusted Fishway Escapement Estimates for Adult Chinook Salmon and Steelhead at Columbia and Snake River Dams, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Volume 133, Issue 4, July 2004, Pages 932–949, https://doi.org/10.1577/T03-133.1
  19. ↑ https://psf.ca/news-media/613k-boost-for-community-driven-salmon-conservation/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  20. ↑ Hyatt, K. D., Canadian Government EBook Collection, & Canada. Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Pacific Region. Science Branch. (2020). Historic water temperature (1924-2018), river discharge (1929-2018), and adult sockeye salmon migration (1937-2018) observations in the columbia, okanogan, and okanagan rivers. Fisheries and Oceans Canada = Pêches et Océans.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 Simmatis, B., Jeziorski, A., Zemanek, A., Selbie, D. T., Hyatt, K., Fryer, J. K., Cumming, B. F., & Smol, J. P. (2018). Long-term reconstruction of deep-water oxygen conditions in osoyoos lake (british columbia, canada): Implications for okanagan river sockeye salmon. Lake and Reservoir Management, 34(4), 392-400. https://doi.org/10.1080/10402381.2018.1488779
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Ross, P. S., Kennedy, C. J., Shelley, L. K., Tierney, K. B., Patterson, D. A., Fairchild, W. L., & Macdonald, R. W. (2013). The trouble with salmon: Relating pollutant exposure to toxic effect in species with transformational life histories and lengthy migrations. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences/Journal Canadien Des Sciences Halieutiques Et Aquatiques, 70(8), 1252-1264. doi:https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2012-0540
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Kuo, J. ni, Soon, A. Y., Garrett, C., Wan, M. T. K., & Pasternak, J. P. (2012). Agricultural pesticide residues of farm runoff in the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 47(4), 250–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2012.636588
  24. ↑ Harris, K. A., Dangerfield, N., Woudneh, M., Brown, T., Verrin, S., & Ross, P. S. (2008). PARTITIONING OF CURRENT-USE AND LEGACY PESTICIDES IN SALMON HABITAT IN BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 27(11), 2253-62. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/partitioning-current-use-legacy-pesticides-salmon/docview/210353858/se-2
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Langer, Otto. E; Hietkamp, Fern; Farrell (2000). Sustainable Fisheries Management. Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 349–361. ISBN 9780429104411. |first3= missing |last3= (help)
  26. ↑ "Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Fisheries Act". November 27 2024. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ↑ "Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy 2023/24 – 2025/26 Service Plan" (PDF). 2023.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/air-land-water/water/laws-rules/water-sustainability-act
  29. ↑ Ministry of Environment (Accessed Apr. 8, 2024). "Guidelines and Best Management Practices (BMPs)". British Columbia. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  30. ↑ Hatfield, Todd; Lewis, Adam; Babakaiff, Scott (2007). "Guidelines for the collection and analysis of fish and fish habitat data for the purpose of assessing impacts from small hydropower projects in British Columbia" (PDF). British Columbia.
  31. ↑ British Columbia (2021). "Requirements and Best Management Practices for Making Changes In and About A Stream in British Columbia" (PDF). British Columbia.
  32. ↑ Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development (2018). "Technical Guidance on Applications for WSA Section 11 Change Approval: Small Craft Harbours in the Thompson-Okanagan Region" (PDF). British Columbia. line feed character in |title= at position 71 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ↑ British Columbia (2022). "Working Around Water". British Columbia.
  34. ↑ British Columbia (2024). "Climate preparedness and adaptation". BC Government.
  35. ↑ Sundt-Hansen, L.E; et al. (2018). "Modelling climate change effects on Atlantic salmon: Implications for mitigation in regulated rivers". Science of the Total Environment. 631: 1005–1017 – via https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.058. Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Anders, Paul. J; Roni, Philip; Beechie, Timothy. J.; Kaplowe, David, J. "Review of Tools for Identifying, Planning, and Implementing Habitat Restoration for Pacific Salmon and Steelhead". North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 38: 355–376. line feed character in |title= at position 68 (help)
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 "Osoyoos Lake Water Quality Society".
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Hyatt, K.D.; Godbout, L. (1999). "A Review of Salmon as Keystone Species and Their Utility as Critical Indicators of Regional Biodiversity and Ecosystem Integrity" (PDF). BC Government. line feed character in |title= at position 43 (help)
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Jacob, C., Mcdaniels, T., & Hinch, S. (2010). Indigenous culture and adaptation to climate change: Sockeye salmon and the st'át'imc people. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 15(8), 859-876. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-010-9244-z
  40. ↑ Schuster, R.; Germain, R.R.; Bennett, J.R.; Reo, N.J.; Arcese, P. (2019). "Vertebrate biodiversity on indigenous-managed lands in Australia, Brazil, and Canada equals that in protected areas. Environmental Science & Policy". ScienceDirect.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Syilx Hatchery".


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