Documentation:Open Case Studies/FRST522/2023/The Findhorn Ecovillage in Scotland: Ecosystem services, and environmental conservation in a Community Woodland Project

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Summary of Case Study

Aerial view of a neighborhood in the Findhorn Ecovillage

The Findhorn Community, also known as the Findhorn Foundation or the Findhorn Ecovillage, is an intentional spiritual community living on Findhorn Bay in the North-East region of Scotland[1]. A small part of the community also lives at Cluny Hill in Forres, Scotland[2]. Founded in 1962, the community was built on the principles of spirituality and sustainability[1]. The Ecovillage, a 15-hectare private estate, is home to almost 50 community businesses and charities and welcomes hundreds of visitors every year[3]. About 500 people from more than 40 countries are community members living in the village, and thousands of friends and partners of the Ecovillage live worldwide[4].

Location of the Findhorn Community in North East Scotland.

This article aims to provide an in-depth overview of the Ecovillage’s principles, values, and activities, highlighting how they contribute to a community-based way of living. More specifically, this article looks at the cultural ecosystem services that this community provides and the initiatives of community members that contribute to land conservation.

Keywords

Findhorn Community, Ecosystem Services, Ecovillage, Environmental Conservation, Scotland  

Introduction

The Findhorn Community founders: Eileen Caddy, Peter Caddy, and Dorothy Maclean. Joined by the Caddy's three sons.

The Findhorn Community was created in 1962 by three adults, the couple Peter and Eileen Caddy, and their friend Dorothy Maclean in the historic county of Moray in North East Scotland[2]. With Caddy’s three children, they came to the region of Findhorn because they had found a job as managers of a hotel. When they eventually got fired, they had almost nothing but a caravan that they parked in a caravan park, near the village of a few hundred inhabitants, Findhorn[5]. It is important to note that Findhorn village is a village outside of the Findhorn Community and does not refer to the future Findhorn Ecovillage. The Findhorn Community's archives tell of Dorothy Maclean's feeling that this place was going to become a place of pilgrimage for hundreds of people and that a community had to be built, following the will of God[6].

Despite the apparent roots of their spirituality in Christianity, they claim not to follow a specific religion and to embrace “all paths to spiritual growth[7]”. However, they have three core principles “Inner Listening, Co-Creation with the Intelligence of Nature, and Work as Love in Action[7]”, guiding their everyday practices. In the community, the practice of attunement, developed by Eileen Caddy, is central to finding ideas and wisdom within yourself, connecting with others, with nature, and making decisions as a group. This practice, which could resemble meditation, is regarded by the community as “the practice of consciously tapping into the interconnectedness of life[7]”. Guided by spirituality, this is the foundation on which the community based its holistic approach to sustainability.

When imagining their community, the three founders wanted to prove that a human settlement could be sustainable. 44 years later, an ecological footprint assessment of the Findhorn Community was realized by two researchers and showed that, per person, the ecological footprint of the community was half the UK average[1]. For some researchers, the very fact of living in a community is the primary factor in reducing the carbon footprint[1]. However, there is nuance to that, developed in the challenges and limitations section.

The Findhorn Ecovillage

Map of the 15 ha Findhorn Ecovillage Park in 2022.


Ecovillage

Findhorn Community members gathering in the Cullerne Garden.

The community founders' caravan is still where it was 61 years ago, and Findhorn is today considered an intentional spiritual community, an educational charity, and most importantly, an ecovillage[1]. According to the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN), network the Finhorn Community helped create, an ecovillage is “an intentional, traditional or urban community that is consciously designed through locally owned participatory processes in all four dimensions of sustainability (social, culture, ecology and economy) to regenerate social and natural environments[8]”. Ten years after the birth of the community, the Findhorn Community members created the Findhorn Foundation, that was registered as a Scottish charity in 1972[5]. The Findhorn Community then became known as the “Findhorn Foundation” and would later represent the Findhorn Ecovillage. In 1985, The Findhorn Community called itself an ecovillage for the first time and started developing and offering educational programs made for community members and ecotourists on ecological restoration and conservation, sustainable building, sustainable economics, permaculture, or relationship between communities and Earth[9]. According to researchers, the themes chosen for these programs reflect how an ecovillage can be understood[9]. Today, the Ecovillage is made up of 500 community members, almost 50 community-based businesses, and 125 ecological buildings[10]. The Findhorn Ecovillage buildings are particularly recognizable as they are known to be made of recycled local stone and whisky barrels[11].


Funding

To exist, the Findhorn Ecovillage relies mostly on the money generated by the workshops and events it offers, as well as on donations. Its “Giving Circle” is made up of members and friends of the Ecovillage living abroad, of influential people, and of "everyday citizens" believing in their project and donating through a form on the Findhorn Foundation's website[12]. The third source of income, linked to the first one, comes from the ecotourism. Indeed, travellers would come to the ecovillage, support the community-based businesses, rent houses, and eventually enroll in a few classes[13]. In the late 2010s, the Ecovillage received funding from the Scottish Government but this was conditional on a mandate and took the from of a Just Transition Fund grant specifically directed to the Findhorn Innovation Research and Education to address the ecovillage’s carbon footprint[14]. Until early 2020, the Findhorn Foundation estimates that 80% of its income came from the workshops and conferences it organized in the Ecovillage[15]. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Ecovillage then lost the majority of its income and relied on the solidarity of donors[15]. Findhorn Ecovillage's current financial situation is discussed in the "challenges and limitations" section of this article.

Tenure and administrative arrangements

Cullerne Garden attunement in the Findhorn Ecovillage.

The 15 ha estate in which the Findhorn Ecovillage is located has been purchased by the Findhorn Foundation in 1972 and is therefore privately owned. Although the community operates more horizontally, it does have a Foundation's new Chief Executive, Terry Gilbey[16]. However, due to the community-based living operating in its estate, the management of the estate is guided by the 6 Findhorn Foundations Trustees and oriented by the community members themselves[17]. In the Ecovillage, decision-making is also a spiritual process carried out through various practices such as attunement. Most decisions are taken unanimously within the community at monthly or even weekly meetings, depending on the intensity of the different periods of the year[7].

(Wood)land ownership in Scotland

In Scotland, according to the latest statistics, approximately 2.4% of the total land are under a form of community ownership. That corresponds 191,261 hectares of land. In total, 621 assets are owned by 422 community groups[18].

Concerning the woodland, most of the woodland is publicly owned by the Scottish Government and managed by Forestry and Land Scotland (FLS), the Scottish Government agency responsible for managing the national forests and land[19]. Regarding forestry policy, support and regulations, Scottish Forestry is the responsible Government agency[20].

In 2021, 38.4% of the Scottish woodland was owned by the State

Ownership type[21]

Woodland area (000) ha

% of country woodland area

Public Forest Estate* [National forest and lands] 527.9** 38.4
Local Authority 7.0 0.5
Crown, Church and Educational Institution 0*** 0
Other Public - not PFE or Local Authority 21.4 1.6
Charity funded by voluntary subscription 37.0 2.7
Private forestry or timber business 57.7 4.2
Private Personal 546.1 39.8
Private Business - companies, partnerships and syndicates 146.6 10.7
Private Community 13.8 1.0
Mixed 2.6 0.2
Other 13.5 1.0

Affected Stakeholders

As affected stakeholders, the Findhorn Community members and the Findhorn Foundation Trustees are considered to be inter-dependent on the Findhorn ecovillage, its environment, its biodiversity, its social architecture and its radiant spirituality. Their way of life is balanced by these elements, and an imbalance would significantly affect their quality of life, social environment, mental equilibrium and livelihood.

Affected stakeholders Main relevant objectives Relative power and governance capacity
The Findhorn Community members Continue to adopt a sustainable and spiritual lifestyle, in connection with oneself, nature and the whole. Educating others and themselves. Relatively high - Community members have a say in all decisions affecting the community. Consultations are often horizontal. The vast majority of decisions are taken unanimously.
The Findhorn Foundation Trustees Ensure that the Findhorn Ecovillage can continue to fulfil its educational and spiritual role, through their management and guidance. High - They hold a position of trust, authority and responsibility in the community[22].

Interested Stakeholders

As interested stakeholders, the following groups or institutions are linked and may interact with the Ecovillage but are not bound to it in a dependent or timed way.

Interested stakeholders Main relevant objectives Relative power and governance capacity
The Scottish Government Collaborate with the community to develop projects that could be beneficial beyond the community, to the regional and even national level; fund and use the experience of the community in different fields (sustainable housing, environmental conservation). High

Is able to influence the Ecovillage activities through specific grants

The Findhorn citizens The hundreds of Findhorn residents are linked to the ecovillage by their geographical proximity and by the international recognition and reputation of the Findhorn Ecovillage and the flows it generates. They aim to preserve the social and political stability of their village by maintaining good relations with the Findhorn Ecovillage. Low
Other institutional or business partners such as private landowners and managers, Forestry and Land Scotland (FLS), and Scottish Forestry collaborating with an environmental conservation charity based in the Ecovillage[20].

The United Nations Department of Public Information, with which the Ecovillage has been formally associated since 1997[2].

Develop working partnerships with the Ecovillage and the initiatives it hosts to evolve their (own) purpose and practices. Adopt a more sustainable approach to forestry. Develop the capacity of ecovillages worldwide. Relative
Findhorn Foundation' private donors Support a project that speaks to them and ensure that the village continues to have a vision similar to their own. Relative

Ex: the percentage of the Ecovillage income coming from donations before the COVID-19 pandemic and the importance of these donations after[15].

Discussion - Initiatives of the Findhorn Ecovillage

Ektopia

As a way to distance themselves from the mainstream economy, Findhorn Community members set up their own bank in 2001, Ektopia, to use their own currency within the Ecovillage and allow members’ financial transactions to be beneficial to the community by circulating locally[23]. Ektopia, described by researchers as “a body with the status of an industrial provident society, to recycle locally the savings of its members[23]” had its first members’ investments in the mid-2000s, involving 220 people that invested more than 200’000 pounds sterling in a community-led buy-out of one of the Ecovillage's stores, until then owned by the Findhorn Foundation[23]. Thus, the community can avoid paying fees and interests to commercial banks and thus invest the saved money locally to benefit the whole. It is interesting economically, but moreover, it has a social impact. By allowing members to be active decision-makers in the future of their money when it has been spent or invested, it is more aligned with the sustainable and spiritual values of members, distancing them from a capitalist logic of profit maximization by regaining control over their participation in a system[23]. One eko, the Ektopia currency, is equal to one pound sterling.


Environmental conservation

Scottish forests

Around 10,000 years BP, Scotland was above all a giant forest. During the Middle Ages, deforestation increased in parallel with the expansion of agriculture, and this process never stopped. Scotland used to be a home for bears, wolves, and moose, but these species went extinct due to the destruction of their habitat. Indeed, the ancient woodland fell below 1% at the turn of the millennium. The remaining is referred to as “semi-natural”, as every forest has felt the effects of human intervention[24].


Trees for Life

A red squirrel eating in a Scots pine tree.

At Findhorn Ecovillage, community members are encouraged to develop projects and are supported by the community itself. One of the most famous initiatives launched by an ecovillager is the independent charity, Trees for Life[25], which has its registered office located in the Findhorn Ecovillage. Alan Watson Featherstone, a community member, photographer and ecologist, founded Trees for Life in 1993 after realizing that there were no young trees in the surrounding forests and the nearby Highlands forests. Moreover, he observed that many species were alien species and that the endogenous Scots pine tree was becoming increasingly rare[2]. Aligned with the holistic approach to sustainability the Ecovillage defends and practices, in addition to being ecological, their approach is also social and community-based. This conservation project sees forests as a true web of life, interconnecting the living[26]. Thus, the members explain that natural revitalization and species' reintroduction provide “a space for wildlife to flourish and communities to thrive[27]”. Thus, people’s involvement is essential. To allow visitors to take part in this project, Trees for Life developed programs called “rewilding weeks,” for which you can register as a volunteer on their website. The only conditions are to be over 18 and to have a decent fitness level[28]. As well as helping to restore the Caledonian forest, these weeks are also social experiences and sharing opportunities. They also have an educational purpose, as two experienced forest guides supervise the weeks and as the participants learn more “about forest restoration through practical work and direct observation[28]”.

Dundreggan Rewilding Project - Centre and nursery.

In 2008, Trees for Life purchased the Dundreggan estate, an area of 4,000 hectares[29]. On this land, the charity established what they call a nursery, where they collect and propagate rare and endogenous seeds to grow trees to replant the ancient forests[30]. In addition to their estates, Trees for Life partners with other landowners and managers. They also work with the “Forestry and Land Scotland”, the Scottish Government agency responsible for managing the 38.4% of national forests and land[21]. Finally, they collaborate with Scottish Forestry, the Scottish Government agency responsible for forestry policy, support and regulations, particularly in the field of information exchange[20].

The charity declares to have a major positive impact on the absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, having planted over two million trees since its creation[27]. Their main recent projects are the restoration of the Caledonian pinewood and the reintroduction of the red squirrel. The first one consisted of an extensive study over 4 years ending in a report titled “Caledonian Pinewood Recovery Project”, recording the health and resilience levels of the last remaining pinewoods in Scotland and the potential obstacles to its natural restoration. Due to the biodiversity crisis caused by climate change, securing a resilient Caledonian forest is a crucial issue[31]. The second project is particularly challenging due to the dense population of non-native grey squirrels that carry a "squirrel pox" lethal for red squirrels who almost became extinct[32]. Since 2016, the charity translocated the equivalent of 10 new populations of red squirrels (for an average of 20 squirrels per population). They are aiming to introduce 4 more red squirrel populations and hoping that eventually, the 14 populations merge together. To monitor the progression of these populations, their objective is to develop a distribution map by conducting a red squirrel survey over the Highland. Thus, new potential areas allowing red squirrels to thrive could be identified[32].

Cultural ecosystem services

The Findhorn Ecovillage Universal Hall - A spiritual place for sharing, reflecting and connecting.

The Ecovillage adopts a holistic approach to sustainability that also applies to the social and cultural ecosystem services the Ecovillage provides and benefits from[9]. The community's vision of life is to adopt low-impact lifestyles and reconnect with nature, shaping cultural landscapes[33]. The cultural ecosystem services they embrace are seen as being inherently connected to land conservation and the ecosystem of the region in general[8]. In the Findhorn Ecovillage, the members share the facilities and manage them as a community. They for example eat together in the Universal Hall, manage a community garden in the Cullerne Garden, or maintain their water purification system[2].


Spirituality

Spiritual services were the first communal practice within the community from its creation and they remain central to the village[2]. For example, the Findhorn Ecovillage is home to a couple of sanctuaries and mediation centres, allowing every member to connect with their inner self, with nature and with others, individually or as a community. Meditation is also at the heart of their practices in the village[25]. The village itself is laid out in a way that allows everyone to live at their own pace, while still being connected to the whole. Inspiration is also considered a cultural ecosystem service[33]. The community's encouragement of creative expression, among children and adults alike is one of its manifestations. For example, members can spontaneously organize a workshop in one of the village's central squares to share a discovery, teach skills, or simply share a space for exchange and spiritual community goodwill[7].


Cultural regeneration

Being a thriving community for 60 years, preserving the former visions and traditions of the Findhorn Community is a key element of the members' everyday practices[2]. By doing so, they reconnect with the whole and also necessarily with nature. Discussions and knowledge transfer with elders are therefore crucial. They also embrace positive innovation brought by new members or by the cycle of life[7]. Vision clarity, mindfulness, sharing, and self-reflection are central to the spiritual practices in the community[7]. These elements constitute a means to achieve a collective regeneration and constantly evolve as a community from the soil of the former members[8].


Education, recreation, and ecotourism

The Ecovillage's main income-generating activity is the organization of events, conferences and workshops[34]. The village education can be described as a supportive social-cultural environment with a low-impact lifestyle[15]. The last workshop organized by the community was about permaculture and was offered at the price of £1,990 (the equivalent of 3,390 CAD) for two weeks of tuition, single-room accommodation and food[35]. Several dozen such workshops have been organized each year. The Findhorn Foundation also developed a higher education pole with the Findhorn College. The “Findhorn Foundation College” was established during the 1990s by two community members and became an independent charity in 2001[2]. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the College had to be declared as dormant with the British Accreditation Council (BAC) and is now exploring alternatives to offer classes again[36]. For those who don't necessarily want to enrol in courses, the village itself is a source of learning. Observing infrastructures, practices and lifestyles are the activities of many ecotourists who come to visit the village. In fact, the village is internationally renowned for its innovative housing techniques[34].


Ecologic Regeneration

Living Machine® at the Findhorn Ecovillage. An ecological water purification system.

To engage in regenerative practices, the ecologic aspect is crucial[8]. In fact, the community developed permaculture skills, implemented a communal garden to grow their own food according to the season and allowing biodiversity to thrive, has an extensive recycling program and is home to charities such as Trees for Life working for environmental conservation[37]. The ecovillage's layout is designed to create nature corridors “with woods, orchards and berry bushes separating individual areas, linking them to the surrounding landscape and providing biological enrichment and orientation[34]”. It is also in the Findhorn Ecovillage that the first “Living Machine” was implemented in Europe in 1995[38]. Implemented by Jonathan Porritt, the machine is an “ecologically engineered sewage treatment plant” that treats sewage of the entire population of the Ecovillage[38]. The machine is located in a greenhouse and consists of a couple of tanks filled with “diverse communities of bacteria, algae, micro-organisms, numerous species of plants and trees, snails, and fish”[38]. This microcosm creates a biofilter without the use of chemicals and results in pure water. Once installed, the machine doesn’t require a lot of capital to keep functioning[38].

Whisky barrel houses - Findhorn Ecovillage.


Housing

In 1998, the Ecovillage was designated as “UN-Habitat Best Practice as a model for holistic and sustainable living”. Thus, it was then in the UN-Habitat database of the initiatives that contributed to a better quality of life in communities and cities worldwide[34]. Thanks to their housing experience, the Ecovillage, through the trading pole of the community New Findhorn Directions (NFD), received a grant of over £530k from the Scottish Government’s Rural Housing Fund to engage the construction of 8 new sustainable and affordable units in the village[36]. The financing has been managed through Ektopia, the bank of the Findhorn Ecovillage[36]. The project was completed in 2021. The sustainable housing techniques of the Ecovillage are very detailed and contain many elements.

An extensive list of all the ecological features that the Findhorn Ecovillage buildings possess and develop - Table from 2020[11]
» Use of passive solar features where possible through orientation and window layout
» Use of solar panels for domestic hot water heating
» A district heating system using a gas condensing boiler for highest fuel efficiency
» Super efficient insulation (U-values of 0.2 watts/m2 C in roof, walls and floors)
» Low-energy light bulbs throughout
» Triple glazing (U=1.65 watts/m2 C)
» Cellulose insulation (made from recycled paper)
» Non-toxic organic paints and wood preservatives throughout
» Boarding manufactured without the use of toxic glues or resins
» Locally grown and harvested timber from managed forests
» Local stone for skirting, patios and pathways
» Roofing with natural clay tiles
» Innovative 'breathing wall' construction allowing a controlled exchange of air & vapor, and eliminating the need for a conventional vapor barrier
» Suspended timber floors for underfloor air circulation to avoid any possible build-up of radon gas
» Isolating electrical circuits to reduce electromagnetic field stress
» Water conservation (showers, low-flush toilets, and self-closing taps)
» Collection and recycling of rainwater for garden use
» Shared facilities (laundry, kitchens, lounges) avoiding unnecessary duplication
» Simple timber frame construction and detailing, suitable for Self Building

Community-based governance

To make decisions regarding the community, the Findhorn Ecovillage uses horizontal approaches to governance, especially the sociocracy method[39]. This method can be described as a non-hierarchical structure promoting critical reflection and dialogue[40]. Called “governance by peers” or “Dynamic Governance” in the United States, this system of self-governance moves away from a classic consensus-based approach[39]. Through their monthly meeting, the community members are free to bring their input and be actively part of all the decisions made. All information is free and easily provided to all members[41]. The six trustees serve as guidance and spiritual authority to orient the discussions. In the literature, four core elements define this self-organizing governance: “The principle of consent governs decision-making; egalitarian selection of persons for leadership and functional tasks; circles as the fundamental underlying structure; double Linking of circles to facilitate vertical and horizontal networking”[40]. Free individual expression, goodwill, the value of personal, inner and collective growth as well as healthy and nourishing relationships are core values of this method[42].

Challenges and limitations

The main challenge facing Findhorn Ecovillage was the closure of its education centre and workshops in September 2023. Due to financial difficulties, the 6 Findhorn Foundation Trustees decided to stop all educational operations[43]. All of the members involved as co-workers in the educational programs were consulted before this decision. However, the Trustees were keen to point out that this is not the end of the Ecovillage[43]. Other community-based businesses still run and the members still live together as a community. A new charity, Findhorn Foundation SCIO, has been registered by the Trustees following that decision[43]. This charity has now a decision group made up of 20 members but all other members are welcome in its feedback circle and have access to all the documents and information used by the group[44]. They aim to develop a solid plan to rebuild a financial and administrative structure within this new charity and hopefully be operational by July 2024[44].

Apart from the end of educational activities, a central limitation faced by the Ecovillage is its remaining dependence on the global mainstream economy. Indeed, despite the introduction of their currency, community members are still dependent “on income, transport, goods, and services from the wider societal and economic systems[1]”. One of the main components of it is the remote location of the Ecovillage which means that air travel is almost always necessary to take part in workshops, engage in ecotourism or travel from the Ecovillage[1]. Naturally, this also has a huge impact on the Ecovillage's carbon footprint and may represent a fundamental contradiction with what the community preaches. So, it's important to mention that this community is not unanimously supported and has been criticized for its main focus on spirituality, which sometimes overshadows environmental considerations.

Conclusion

The Findhorn Community and its Ecovillage were pioneer in their domain, starting from a caravan park to end up with an intentional spiritual and educational community that thrived for more than 60 years[2]. It inspired many and had many academic and journalistic articles written about it. The Findhorn international community is still connected through the internet and continues to be active in social media. Its association with the Department of Public Information of the United Nations in 1997 and its designation as UN-Habitat Best Practice as a model for holistic and sustainable living in 1998 proves its institutional and organizational legitimacy and influence internationally[2]. Its partnerships with the Scottish Government through grants demonstrate how the Findhorn Community was successful in becoming an important actor nationally. The administrative reconfiguration ongoing in the Ecovillage management after the closure of their educational pole in September 2023 is still a work-in-progress but could eventually make the Ecovillage's prosperous days bloom again[43].

Recommendations

It is difficult to navigate solutions in times of re-arrangement but the administrative reconfiguration of the charity ending in the creation of a new one could allow the community to purify itself from the past dysfunctions and start its regrowth on healthier soil. Thus, The Findhorn Ecovillage has reasons to stay optimistic regarding its future. In this period of Internet and social media explosion, the Findhorn Ecovillage could benefit from a rebranding and the service of a publicist and webmaster. Through the years, the Findhorn Community has maintained close links between its members all over the world. However, an update of their communication system could help build even greater loyalty among members, donors and friends, and breathe new life into the ecovillage. To connect with young people in particular, the use of new media and a variety of narratives could introduce new ideas into the community and help it to grow in new and ingenious directions, particularly concerning recent environmental advances. In this sense, seeking for collaborations in original places, for example with ecologist influencers, could also be beneficial to show the world that the community still holds the cards, creates new opportunities and looks to the future. Collaboration and rebranding could allow the ecovillage to secure a new range of donors while maintaining genuine and thoughtful relations with its old friends.


This conservation resource was created by Course:FRST522.


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Copeland, C., MacKerron, G., & Foxon, T. J. (2023). Futures for Findhorn: Exploring challenges for achieving net zero in an ecological intentional community. Futures, 149,103155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2023.103155
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Forster, P. M., & Wilhelmus, M. (2005). The role of individuals in community change within the Findhorn intentional community. Contemporary Justice Review, 8(4), 367-379. https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580500334221
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  4. ↑ Dawson, J. (2010). A tale of two ecovillages: Reviving the health of local communities. Gaian Economics, 94.
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  6. ↑ Findhorn Foundation. "Dorothy Maclean". Findhorn Foundation.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Findhorn Foundation. "Guiding Principles". Findhorn Foundation.
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  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Trees for Life. "Rewilding Weeks". Trees for Life.
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  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Trees for Life. "Red Squirrel Reintroduction Project". Trees for Life.
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  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Findhorn Foundation. "Findhorn Foundation Annual Report 2020-21" (PDF). Findhorn Foundation.
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  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Findhorn Ecovillage. "Ecological waste water treatment". Findhorn Ecovillage.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Global Ecovillage Network. "Community Tools: Transparency, Equivalence, and Effectiveness". Global Ecovillage Network.
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  41. ↑ Findhorn Foundation. "Our vision and values". Findhorn Foundation.
  42. ↑ Rios, M. (2011). Sociocracy: A permaculture approach to community evolution. Communities, (153), 20.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 Findhorn Foundation. "Trustees' Annual Report & Financial Statements for the Financial Period 1 February 2021 – 31 March 2022" (PDF). Findhorn Foundation. line feed character in |title= at position 65 (help)
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 New Findhorn Association. "Governance Working Group". New Findhorn Association.
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