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Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Instant Noodles - Food Science, Processing, Safety, and Regulation

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Introduction

Instant noodles are pre-cooked, dehydrated noodles sold with seasoning packets or flavouring oil. They are made mainly from wheat flour, rice flour, or other starches and are prepared quickly by adding boiling water. Methods like steaming and flash-frying or drying extend shelf life and enable mass production[1].

History

Momofuku Ando[2]

Invented by Momofuku Ando in Japan in 1958, instant noodles became a global convenience food. His flash-frying method steamed noodles to dehydrate them, making them shelf-stable and quick to rehydrate[3]. The 1971 launch of Cup Noodles revolutionized the market by combining noodles, seasonings, and a container in one portable product[3].

Popularity and global consumption

Over 100 billion servings are consumed annually in more than 100 countries. China leads in total volume, while South Korea has the highest per capita rate, over 70 servings per person annually. In Canada, they are especially popular among students for their low cost, portability, and long shelf life[3].

Processing and Food Chemistry

Ingredient Selection and Formulation

Instant noodle production relies on precise chemical, thermal, and physical transformations of wheat starch and proteins. The balance of moisture, heat transfer, and molecular restructuring dictates noodle rehydration speed, structural integrity, shelf-life, and sensory properties.

  • Wheat Flour: Wheat flour is known to be the principal ingredient, which supplies starch (approximately 70-75% and proteins at 8-14%),and is made up of primarily glutenin and gliadin. When hydrated and mixed, glutenin contributes elasticity while gliadin provides extensibility. Together they form gluten, a continuous viscoelastic network that allows dough to withstand repeated sheeting, slitting, steaming, and drying without breaking.
  • Water:  Water is considered the second most significant ingredient as it hydrates flour particles, activates gluten development, and permits starch granules to swell during steaming. The amount of added water is carefully controlled, as insufficient hydration produces brittle dough, whereas excessive hydration reduces processing efficiency and increases drying time.
  • Salt: Salt serves multiple technological functions beyond flavour enhancement. Sodium chloride strengthens gluten interactions, improves dough elasticity, reduces stickiness, and influences starch hydration. Many instant noodle manufacturers also incorporate alkaline salts such as sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate (collectively known as kansui)[4]. These alkaline salts increase dough pH, strengthen gluten proteins, promote the characteristic yellow colour of many Asian noodles, improve firmness after cooking, and reduce cooking losses.

Depending on the product type, manufacturers may also incorporate hydrocolloids (such as guar gum or xanthan gum), emulsifiers, antioxidants, starch modifiers, phosphates and vitamins to improve dough machinability, safety and shelf life, moisture retention, texture, frying stability and nutritional quality.[5]

The precise formulation ultimately determines how the dough responds during processing and influences the final noodle's texture, rehydration rate, oil uptake and shelf stability.

Dough Formation

  • Gluten Network Development: Mixing wheat flour with water, salt, and alkaline salts (Kansui: potassium and sodium carbonates) initiates protein hydration. The shear forces during mixing align glutenin and gliadin proteins into a cohesive, viscoelastic protein matrix via intermolecular disulfide bonding. Kansui elevates pH (typically to 8.5–10.0), which enhances gluten cross-linking, increases dough elasticity, and imparts a distinct yellow hue and firm texture.[6]

As mixing continues, these proteins form an interconnected gluten network capable of trapping water while maintaining elasticity. This network enables the dough to withstand repeated compression during sheeting without tearing.

The mixing process also distributes starch granules uniformly throughout the protein matrix, creating a homogeneous dough. Proper mixing is essential because under-mixed dough lacks structural strength, whereas excessive mixing may weaken gluten through mechanical degradation.

  • Kansui and Starch Interaction: The alkaline environment delays preliminary starch swelling, preserving structural integrity during initial mechanical sheeting and slitting.

Mixing conditions can vary depending on the type of mixer used, ingredient quality, and the desired outcome. Traditionally, horizontal and vertical mixers have been utilized to mix dough, but new technology like vacuum mixers, high-speed mixers, and low-speed mixers have gained popularity.[5]

Vacuum mixer used to process dough for instant noodles[7]
  • High-speed Mixer: The high-speed mixer is used to mix wheat flour and water together within seconds. As the two ingredients are being mixed, water is simultaneously sprayed into the mixture at 1500rpm.[5]
  • Low-speed Mixer: The low-speed mixer maximizes the utilization of high water absorbing dough. Operating at <10rpm, it most closely mimics hand mixing. As a result, this will minimize the damage done to the gluten structure. The combination of low mixing speed, high water absorption and, specialized kneading allow for a well-developed gluten structure.[5]
  • Vacuum Mixer: The vacuum mixer allows for extra water to be added to the dough without any processing issues. The vacuum mixer allows for the flour to hydrate well, and the gluten matrix to develop during mixing and sheeting.[5]

Dough Sheeting & Noodle Formation

  • Thermal Starch Gelatinization: Continuous steaming (100°C for 1–3 minutes) transfers latent heat, causing amylose and amylopectin molecules within the starch granules to absorb trapped water, swell, and undergo irreversible crystalline structure disruption (gelatinization).[8]

After mixing, the dough passes through a series of steel rollers that progressively reduce its thickness, which leads to the differing shapes and kinds of instant noodles offered in the market today.

[9]Instant Noodles Food Processing and Shape Formation

This sheeting process aligns gluten fibres in the rolling direction, improving elasticity and producing a smooth, continuous dough sheet with uniform thickness. Multiple reductions allow gradual strengthening of the gluten matrix while minimizing tearing.

  • Matrix Fixation: Steaming achieves a starch gelatinization degree of 60% to 80%. This step locks in the wavy noodle morphology (created during slitting) and ensures rapid rehydration capability when prepared later by the consumer.[10]

The sheet is then slit into narrow strands using rotating cutters. Many manufacturers subsequently pass the strands through wave-forming conveyors that create the familiar wavy noodle structure.

The wavy geometry is not merely aesthetic. It increases noodle flexibility, reduces breakage during packaging, improves heat transfer during steaming, enhances dehydration efficiency and promotes faster rehydration when consumers prepare the noodles.

Steaming

Steaming represents one of the most critical stages because it permanently establishes noodle structure through starch gelatinization and protein denaturation.

Typically, noodles are steamed at approximately 95–100°C for one to five minutes. During steaming, starch granules absorb water, swell irreversibly, and lose their crystalline structure.

  • Starch Gelatinization: transforms raw starch into an amorphous gel capable of rapidly absorbing hot water during consumer preparation. Simultaneously, gluten proteins denature and become fixed within the noodle structure. Protein denaturation stabilizes the gluten network created during mixing and prevents the noodles from disintegrating during cooking. Starch gelatinization also determines noodle rehydration rate, firmness, and viscoelasticity.[11]
    A pictorial description of the starch gelatinization process[12]

The degree of cooking can depend on the original moisture content of noodle; amount, pressure, and temperature of steam; and steaming time

Incomplete steaming results in insufficient gelatinization, producing hard centres and poor rehydration. Conversely, excessive steaming may weaken the noodle structure and reduce firmness after cooking.

Dehydration Technologies

After steaming, noodles must be dehydrated to reduce water activity and achieve long shelf life. Dehydration is the primary critical control point determining noodle shelf-life, oil absorption, and porous micro-architecture.

Deep-fat Frying

  • Heat & Mass Transfer: Noodles pass through palm oil at high temperatures (140°C–160°C) for 60–120 seconds. Free water within the noodle matrix rapidly volatilizes into steam.
  • Pore Formation & Oil Absorption: As water vapor violently escapes, it leaves behind a network of microscopic capillary pores throughout the gelatinized starch-protein matrix. Palm oil enters these void spaces.[13]

Hot oil rapidly vaporizes internal moisture. As steam escapes from the noodle matrix, microscopic pores are created throughout the structure. These pores are essential because they allow boiling water to rapidly penetrate the noodles during consumer preparation, reducing cooking time to approximately three minutes. However, oil simultaneously replaces part of the lost water through capillary action, increasing fat content.

Moisture content drops from ~30–40% down to 2–5%, while oil content increases to 15–20%. The open porous structure enables ultra-fast rehydration (3 minutes) upon adding boiling water.

Hot-Air Drying (Non-Fried / Air-Dried Noodles)

  • Convective Moisture Removal: Noodles are subjected to hot, humid air streams (70°C–90°C) for 30–40 minutes.

Moisture content drops to 8–12%, while fat content remains low (<2%). This can be attractive to consumers who may be wary of the high fat content that comes with typical deep frying of the noodles. Because water evaporates slowly without rapid steam vaporization, the internal capillary matrix is significantly denser. This requires longer rehydration times (4–6 minutes) and yields a texture closer to fresh pasta.[14]

Vacuum Drying

  • Vacuum drying: Lowers atmospheric pressure, allowing water to evaporate at lower temperatures.

Lower temperatures reduce thermal damage, preserve colour and flavour compounds, and minimize lipid oxidation. Although product quality is high, vacuum drying requires expensive equipment and is therefore less common commercially.

Freeze Drying

  • Freeze drying: Removes frozen water through sublimation. Ice crystals leave behind highly porous structures that exhibit excellent rehydration while preserving nutrients, colour, and flavour.

Because of high processing costs, freeze drying is rarely used for standard instant noodles but may be applied to premium ingredients such as vegetables and meats included in seasoning packets.

Cooling & Packaging Dynamics

Following dehydration, noodles must be cooled before packaging. Cooling prevents condensation inside packages because warm products release moisture when sealed.

  • Water Activity (aw) and Stability: Rapid cooling prevents condensation inside the sealed package, which would otherwise create localized high water activity (aw > 0.6) conducive to mold or microbial growth.[15]

Packaging protects instant noodles from oxygen, moisture, light, and physical damage.

  • Packaging Environment: Fried noodles require light-barrier, low-oxygen permeable packaging (e.g., aluminum foil laminates or opaque metallized films) to minimize lipid oxidation induced by UV exposure and oxygen permeation. These materials provide excellent moisture barriers while reducing oxygen transmission. Rancidity is also accelerated in the presence of ultraviolet life, which is why instant noodles are often packed in reddish yellow or green packaging material without any transparent parts.[5]

Oxygen absorbers or nitrogen flushing may be incorporated to minimize oxidative rancidity by limiting oxygen exposure. Seasoning sachets are packaged separately to reduce moisture transfer between components. Essentially, proper packaging maintains low water activity, delays lipid oxidation, and enables shelf lives of approximately six to twelve months.

Bag instant noodles[16]

Comparison of vacuum sealing methods in cup noodles vs. plastic bag noodles

  • Sealing Methods:Cup vs Bag Noodles

Bag-type noodles: Flexible plastic packaging can be heat-sealed after filling. Nitrogen flushing or oxygen absorbers may be used to reduce oxygen exposure and slow lipid oxidation.

Cup-type noodles: Noodles are placed in a rigid cup and sealed with a lid or film. The seal provides a barrier against oxygen and moisture while also maintaining the structure of the cup during storage.[17]

Cup instant noodles[18]

Both packaging formats aim to minimize oxygen and moisture exposure, but the sealing configuration differs because bag noodles use flexible films while cup noodles use a rigid container with a sealed opening.

Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) & Physical State Dynamics

The physical behavior, crispness, and rehydration properties of instant noodles are dictated by the principles of food polymer physics, specifically referred to as Glass Transition Temperature (Tg). Tg is the temperature threshold at which an amorphous solid transitions from a hard, brittle, "glassy" state into a soft, flexible, "rubbery" state and vice versa.

Two Phase Transition During Processing:

  • The Rubbery State (Steaming): During moist-heat steaming (100°C), high temperatures combined with moisture cause wheat starch granules to gelatinize and swell. At this stage, the moisture content is high (~30-40%), acting as a natural plasticizer. The starch-protein matrix resides well above its Tg, remaining soft, pliable, and rubbery.[19]
  • Transition to the Glassy State (Dehydration & Cooling): As the noodles undergo flash-frying or hot-air drying, moisture drops rapidly. When cooled down to room temperature (20°C, the sharp reduction in moisture causes Tg to spike significantly above room temperature. As ambient temperature falls below Tg, polymer chain mobility drops to near zero, locking the amorphous starch-protein network into a rigid, non-crystalline, "glassy" matrix.

Rehydration Mechanism (The Plasticization Effect)

The rehydration mechanism is the process of putting water back into a dehydrated food, so it returns to its original, freshly cooked texture. When instant noodles are manufactured, almost all of their moisture is rapidly removed through frying or hot-air drying. This leaves behind a dry, rigid block filled with microscopic channels (pores). Essentially, in the context of food science, water is not just a liquid solvent but a powerful plasticizer that fundamentally changes the physical state and texture of food polymers. [20]

Food Safety

Instant noodles are processed foods with a long shelf life. However, due to nutritional content, additives, and contamination risks, their safety is often debated.

Microbiological Safety (Low Risk)

Instant noodles are exceptionally safe from spoilage microorganisms. The manufacturing processes, such as steaming, followed by deep-fat frying or hot-air drying effectively eliminate most microbes. The final product possesses a very low water activity. As long as the noodles are sealed properly and kept in a dry, shaded area, it is nearly impossible for pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms to grow.

Nutritional Profile

Sodium Content

Instant noodles are one of the largest processed food contributors to dietary sodium. A single serving can contain anywhere between 397 mg and 3678 mg of sodium per 100g. For example, a standard 100g pack of Nissin Chicken Flavour contains 1780 mg of sodium. Considering the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a maximum intake of 2 g (2000 mg) per day, a single pack accounts for nearly 77% of the daily limit. This sodium comes from alkaline salts (kansui) used for dough texture and color, as well as the concentrated soup bases. High sodium diets are linked to increased risks of stomach cancer, heart disease, stroke, and high blood pressure, particularly in salt-sensitive individuals.

Fried vs Non-Fried Instant Noodles [21]

Fat Content: Fried vs Non-Fried

Fried noodles have higher oil content, 15–22% for bag types and up to 37% for cup types, raising fat intake concerns[22]. Non-fried noodles contain much less fat, though seasoning still adds fat. Traditional instant noodles are dehydrated via deep-fat frying. While this cooks the noodles quickly and creates a porous structure for fast rehydration, it leaves the final product very high in fat. In the Nissin example, a serving contains 13g of saturated fat, accounting for 65% of the daily recommended value.

Nutrient Deficiencies

Instant noodles provide a massive amount of energy but very few essential micronutrients. They are produced using highly milled, refined white wheat flour. The milling process strips away the bran and germ of the wheat, removing almost all naturally occurring dietary fiber, which negatively impacts digestive health and blood sugar regulation. This refining process also removes essential micronutrients, particularly B vitamins, iron, and zinc.

Chemical Additives and Preservatives

To extend shelf life, fried noodles often contain antioxidants like TBHQ and BHA/BHT, which are added to the frying oil to prevent rancidity. In Canada, TBHQ is allowed up to 0.02% of the oil content and is considered safe by Health Canada [23][24].

To achieve their texture, flavor, and shelf life, instant noodles rely on several additives that are closely regulated:

  • Flavor Enhancers: Monosodium Glutamate (MSG), Disodium Inosinate, and Disodium Guanylate are widely used to impart an umami flavor.
  • Texture Modifiers: Hydrocolloids like Guar Gum are added to improve noodle texture and elasticity.
  • Antioxidants: Tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) is frequently added to the frying oil to prevent lipid oxidation and rancidity in the high-fat product.
  • MSG (Monosodium Glutamate): A common flavor enhancer in noodle seasonings, MSG is approved by Health Canada and the WHO. However, some people report “MSG syndrome” symptoms like headaches or flushing[25].

Safety Measures to Prevent Contamination and Spoilage

Manufacturers use food safety systems including:

  • Heat treatment (steaming/frying) kills microorganisms
  • Dry to 10% moisture to prevent bacterial growth
  • Vacuum seal or gas flush the packaging to prevent oxidation
  • It complies with GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice) and HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) standards

However, contamination can still occur if the packaging is damaged or boiling water is added to unsafe containers such as polystyrene cups[26].

Packaging Risks

Beyond the food itself, packaging presents potential safety concerns. Preparing cup-style noodles by pouring boiling water directly into plastic or polystyrene bowls carries a risk of leaching chemical compounds from the packaging directly into the food.

Regulation and Labeling in Canada

There are strict standards for instant noodle composition, labeling, safety, and additive approvals.

Regulation

Health Canada (HPFB) sets food safety standards, nutritional policies, and permissible food additives under the Food and Drugs Act and Regulations; they are responsible to maintain a positive list of allowed additives. Canada maintains a stricter, positive-list system for food additives with around 300 approved additives.[27]

Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) enforces Health Canada’s policies and regulations through inspection, import controls, packaging standards, and label verification.[28]

Common Labeling Requirements

Consumer packaging must include the product common name, net quantity/weight, business name and address, bilingual text (English and French), ingredients list, allergen disclosures, and nutrition facts table.[29]

  • Ingredients must be in descending order of weight before mixing.
  • All sugar-based ingredients, such as corn syrup, maltose, dextrose, must be grouped together under “sugar” in the ingredients list.
  • Allergens, such as gluten, soy, sesame, egg, milk derivatives, must be declared in both English and French.[30]
  • Prepackaged foods meeting or exceeding set thresholds, commonly ≥15% daily value, for saturated fat, sugars, or sodium must be displayed in a standardized black and white front of package symbol that features a magnifying glass icon and the text “High in / Élevé en" alongside "Health Canada / Santé Canada". Since instant noodle broths are typically high in sodium levels, most products must include the mandatory symbol.[31]

Instant Noodle Specific Labeling Requirements

  • Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is a flavour enhancer that gives a umami taste and suppresses bitterness. Under Canadian regulations, despite being categorized as a seasoning rather than a regulated food additive under Division 16 of the Food and Drugs Regulations, MSG must be transparently listed by its common name in the ingredient list.
Nongshim Tonkotsu Ramen[32]
Nongshim Tonkotsu Ramen Nutrition Facts[32]


Packaging and Sustainability

Plastic Film Packaging [33]
Plastic Film Packaging [33]

Laminated Plastic Films

Laminated plastic films (PET/CPP or BOPP/CPP) are currently the most common packaging type for instant noodles. Some products use aluminized films (BOPP/VMCPP) for enhanced light and oxygen barrier protection[34][33]. Instant noodles undergo a deep-fat frying during processing[35], resulting in very low moisture content. If exposed to high temperatures or humidity, spoilage can occur. Therefore, packaging must provide effective barrier protection. Multi-layer films offer three key benefits:

  • Prevent rancidity in high-fat fried noodles[33].
  • Preserve flavour and texture by blocking moisture and odours[36].
  • Ensure stability during transportation with strong seals that reduce spoilage and deterioration risks[36].

However, these multi-layer films are difficult to recycle because their layers cannot be easily separated, contributing to significant plastic waste and environmental pollution.

Global Industrial Adoption of Bioplastic Packaging (Production Capacities 2023–2028) [37]

Bioplastics and Compostable Films

Due to rising environmental concerns and Canada’s Zero Plastic Waste initiative[38], the industry is exploring bioplastics and compostable films as alternatives. Materials like PLA, PBAT, starch-based plastics, or protein-based bioplastics are considered due to their renewable sources and potential compostability[37].

Recent innovations include bio-based active films containing rice chaff and essential oils, which not only reduce environmental impact but also provide antimicrobial protection against foodborne pathogens such as E. coli and S. aureus, enhancing food safety[39]. These materials hold promise for replacing synthetic plastics in terms of biodegradability, though challenges remain in large-scale industrial adoption[39].

Cup Packaging [40]

Cup Packaging

Traditionally, instant noodle cups were made from polystyrene (styrofoam), which is not microwave-safe and non-biodegradable[41]. In response to sustainability concerns, major manufacturers like Nissin Foods are replacing styrofoam with paper-based cups containing recycled fibre and eliminating plastic overwrap. This shift improves microwave safety and aligns with sustainability goals, reflecting industry trends toward renewable, recyclable materials.

Conclusion

Instant noodles are globally popular for their convenience, affordability, and shelf life. However, this project highlights key concerns from a food science and public health perspective.

Summary of Key Findings

  • Food Processing: Instant noodle processing involves carefully controlled ingredient formulation, dough formation, sheeting, steaming, dehydration, cooling, and packaging to achieve the desired texture, shelf life, and convenience.[5]
  • Steaming: Steaming gelatinizes starch and stabilizes the gluten network, allowing noodles to maintain their structure while enabling rapid rehydration.[11]
  • Dehydration and Shelf Life: Dehydration is essential for shelf stability and rehydration. Fried noodles develop a porous structure for faster rehydration but contain more oil, while air-dried noodles have lower fat content but require longer rehydration.[15]
  • Cooling & Packaging: Cooling and protective packaging help maintain low water activity and limit moisture exposure and oxidation, extending product shelf life.[13][14]
  • Nutritional concerns: Most instant noodles are high in sodium and fat and low in protein, fiber, and micronutrients. Overconsumption may contribute to hypertension and obesity[42][43].
  • Additives: Preservatives like TBHQ, flavour enhancers like MSG, and other additives such as emulsifiers and polyphosphates are commonly used. While permitted in Canada, some remain controversial and require monitoring [24] [43].
  • Food safety: High-temperature frying can produce acrylamide, a potential health risk; past contamination cases exist [42].
  • Labeling and regulation: Strict Canadian labelling standards require bilingual labels, allergen declarations, and front-of-package nutrition symbols when sodium, sugar, or saturated fat exceed limits[44][45][46].
  • Sustainability challenges: Multi-layer plastic films are protective but hard to recycle. Though bioplastics and paper-based cups show promise, adoption remains limited [34][38][41].

Recommendations for Canadian Consumers

  • Choose non-fried or air-dried products to lower fat and acrylamide exposure [42].
  • Select low-sodium varieties and monitor serving sizes[43][44].
  • Check ingredient lists for allergens and additives like MSG or preservatives[24][45].
  • Support recyclable or compostable packaging[38][41].
  • Consume instant noodles in moderation.

In summary, instant noodles are a practical option, but informed choices can help Canadian consumers protect their health and support sustainability.

Exam Questions

1. What is the main concern associated with the Maillard reaction in the processing of instant noodles?

A. It reduces the texture of noodles.

B. It causes excessive sodium levels.

C. It can produce acrylamide, a potential health risk.

D. It prevents microbial contamination.

Correct Answer: C. It can produce acrylamide, a potential health risk.

Explanation: This question connects directly to our course content, where we learned about chemical changes during high-heat processing. Our research project explored how deep-fat frying is used to dehydrate instant noodles and create their porous texture. We learned that this high-heat process induces the Maillard reaction, which creates appealing flavours and browning, but may also produce acrylamide, a compound being studied for its potential health risks. This surprised us because acrylamide is not listed on labels or packaging, but can form in many common fried or baked foods. This question assesses students’ understanding of the benefits and risks of heat processing, which is studied in FNH 200.

2. What is the primary function of deep-frying during the processing of instant noodles?

A. It increases sodium content.

B. It sterilizes the noodles and eliminates all microbes.

C. It forms a porous structure for fast rehydration.

D. It enhances vitamin retention in noodles.

Correct Answer: C. It forms a porous structure for fast rehydration.

Explanation: This question aligns with the course content related to food processing methods and structural changes in starchy foods. In our research, we studied how deep-frying is used to rapidly dehydrate instant noodles after steaming. This high-temperature step removes moisture and creates a porous internal structure, which is essential for the noodles to rehydrate quickly when hot water is added. We found it fascinating that this structural transformation not only improves cooking efficiency but is also carefully controlled to maintain texture and shelf stability. This topic directly connects to FNH 200 concepts such as moisture migration, gelatinization, and the role of food processing in shaping consumer convenience foods.

3. Which of the following BEST explains the rapid softening of dehydrated instant noodles during rehydration?

A. Water lowers the glass transition temperature (Tg), allowing the noodle structure to change from a glassy state to a softer, rubbery state.

B. Water increases the glass transition temperature (Tg), allowing the noodle structure to become more flexible.

C. Water mainly softens the noodles by dissolving the oil that was absorbed during frying.

D. Water mainly softens the noodles by preventing starch from absorbing more water during rehydration.

Correct Answer：A

Explanation: It examined aspects that we learnt about during our research but which were not discussed in detail in class. Prior to undertaking this project, it was generally believed that rehydration was simply the process by which instant noodles absorb water. Through this research, we discovered that water can also act as a plasticiser, lowering the glass transition temperature (Tg) of dehydrated instant noodles and causing the noodle structure to transition from a glassy state to a softer, rubbery state. This provides a better explanation for why instant noodles soften and become ready to eat within just a few minutes after hot water is added.

References

  1. ↑ "What is instant noodle?". World Instant Noodles Association. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
  2. ↑ Wikipedia Contributors. (2020). Momofuku Ando. In Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momofuku_Ando
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "History of Instant Noodles". World instant noodles association. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
  4. ↑ "Kansui, the Secret of Ramen Noodles and Its History". Nanachart Traders Consolidation Ltd. 2024. Retrieved July 31, 2026. |first= missing |last= (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Fu, B. X. (2008). "Asian noodles: History, classification, raw materials, and processing". Science Direct. Retrieved July 31, 2026.
  6. ↑ Dewan, Aastha; Chaudhary, Nisha; Malik, Priya Dangi; Malik, Manish; Singh, Narpindar; Khatkar, B. S.; Rustagi, Sarvesh; Pandiselvam, R. (2025). "Concentration-dependent functional impact of high molecular weight (HMW) and low molecular weight (LMW) glutenins on dough rheology and instant noodle quality in distinct wheat varieties". Journal of Cereal Science – via ScienceDirect.
  7. ↑ Vacuum dough mixer - vacuum, conventional & vertical noodle mixing machines. (2025, April 21). NoodleMachinePro. https://noodlemachinepro.com/dough-mixers/vacuum-dough-mixer/
  8. ↑ Obadi, Mohammed; Zhang, Jiyao; He, Zhen; Zhu, Shuyun; Wu, Qifei; Qi, Yajing; Xu, Bin (January 15, 2022). "A review of recent advances and techniques in the noodle mixing process". LWT – via ScienceDirect.
  9. ↑ Zhang, J., He, Z., Zhu, S., Wu, Q., Qi, Y., & Xu, B. (2021). "A review of recent advances and techniques in the noodle mixing process". Retrieved August 7, 2026.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ Obadi, Mohammed; Zhang, Jiyao; He, Zhen; Zhu, Shuyun; Wu, Qifei; Qi, Yajing; Xu, Bin. "A review of recent advances and techniques in the noodle mixing process". LWT – via ScienceDirect.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Dhital, Sushil; Katawal, Surendra B.; Shrestha, Ashok K. (2010). "Formation of Resistant Starch During Processing and Storage of Instant Noodles". International Journal of Food Properties – via Taylor & Francis.
  12. ↑ Supriya, N. (2021). What is starch gelatinization? Definition, process & factors affecting. In Biology Reader. https://biologyreader.com/starch-gelatinization.html
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Dhital, Sushil; Katawal, Surendra B.; Shrestha, Ashok K. (2010). "Formation of Resistant Starch During Processing and Storage of Instant Noodles". International Journal of Food Properties – via Taylor & Francis.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Pham, H.N.; Charoenphun, N.; Lekjing, S.; Noonim, P.; Rattanawut, J.; Nguyen, T. T. H.; Paongoen, T.; Venkatachalam, K. (2026). "Effects of deep-frying and hot-air drying on nutritional and quality attributes of catfish powder-fortified instant noodles". Applied Food Research – via ScienceDirect.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Miles, S. (2026). "De-Hy Technology An Overview of Dehydration Technology". TechFive. Retrieved August 3, 2026.
  16. ↑ Li, A. (2023, March 26). File:Asian noodles in taj.jpg - UBC wiki. Wiki.Ubc.Ca. https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Asian_noodles_in_Taj.jpg
  17. ↑ Vermeulen, A.; Ragaert, P.; Rajkovic, A.; Samapundo,, S.; Lopez-Galvez, F.; Devlieghere, F. (2013). "Modified Atmosphere Packaging". Food Process Engineering and Technology – via ScienceDirect.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  18. ↑ Acuta, Q. (2025, April 13). File:Nissin cup noodle (original) - 01.jpg - UBC wiki. Wiki.Ubc.Ca. https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Nissin_Cup_Noodle_(Original)_-_01.jpg
  19. ↑ Aichayawanich, S.; Wongsa, J. (2019). "The Stickiness of Fresh Noodle after Steaming Process". IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science – via Research Gate.
  20. ↑ Pouplin, M.; Redl, A.; Gontard, N. (2021). "Glass Transition of Wheat Gluten Plasticized with Water, Glycerol, or Sorbitol". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 47 – via ACS Publications.
  21. ↑ Noodle-Plant. (n.d.). “Fried vs non-fried instant noodles: differences”. Retrieved from https://www.noodle-plant.com/blog/fried-nonfried-instant-nooldes-differenc.html
  22. ↑ Quality and Public Health Concerns of Instant Noodles as Influenced by Raw Materials and Processing Technology.” ResearchGate, www.researchgate.net/publication/334642286_Quality_and_Public_Health_Concerns_of_Instant_Noodles_as_Influenced_by_Raw_Materials_and_Processing_Technology.
  23. ↑ Health Canada. (2023). Food additives. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives.html
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Health Canada. (2024). List of Permitted Preservatives (List No. 11). Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/lists-permitted/11-preservatives.html
  25. ↑ Health Canada. (2023). Monosodium Glutamate (MSG). https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/chemical-contaminants/environmental-contaminants/monosodium-glutamate.html
  26. ↑ Kamolchote, S., et al. (2010). Quality assurance programs for instant noodle production. In Asian Noodles (pp. 363–392). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470634370.ch15
  27. ↑ Chan, J. (2026). Lesson 04: Food and Drugs Act and Regulations of Canada [Lecture slides]. Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia.
  28. ↑ Chan, J. (2026). Lesson 04: Food and Drugs Act and Regulations of Canada [Lecture slides]. Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia.
  29. ↑ Chan, J. (2026). Lesson 04: Food and Drugs Act and Regulations of Canada [Lecture slides]. Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia.
  30. ↑ Canadian Food Inspection Agency. (2026). List of ingredients and allergens on food labels. Government of Canada. https://inspection.canada.ca/en/food-labels/labelling/industry/list-ingredients-and-allergens
  31. ↑ Health Canada. (2026). Nutrition labelling: Front-of-package nutrition symbol. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/nutrition-labelling/front-package.html
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Costco Canada. (2025). Nongshim Tonkotsu Ramen, 6 × 101 g. Retrieved from https://www.costco.ca/nongshim-tonkotsu-ramen-6-x-101-g.product.100659612.html
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Guangzhou Novel Packaging. (n.d.). Instant noodle packaging. Retrieved from https://www.gznovelpackaging.com/instant_noodle/
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Amiba Pack. (2021). Various types of instant noodle laminated film packaging. Retrieved from https://amibapack.com/en/various-types-of-instant-noodle-laminated-film-packaging/
  35. ↑ University of British Columbia. (2025). Lesson 8.4: Drying methods. Retrieved from https://canvas.ubc.ca/courses/164911/pages/8-dot-4-drying-methods?module_item_id=8070113
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Nanjundaswamy, H. M., Bheemanagouda, A., Balanagouda, P., & Krishnappa, M. (2022). Consumer perception towards instant noodles consumption: A study. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 11(6), 2973–2979. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9228407/?utm_source=chatgpt.com
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Zhao, L., & Tang, X. (2024). Packaging waste management and recycling in the food industry. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 39, 567–578. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214289424000449
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Journal of Student Policy and Practice. (2022). Food packaging sustainability: Policy considerations. Retrieved from https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/sppp/article/view/71433
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Chen, Y., & Wang, H. (2024). Advancements in biodegradable packaging for instant foods. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 39, 432–445. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214289424000413
  40. ↑ Nissin Foods Holdings Co., Ltd. (n.d.). “Resource recycling” (Sustainability: Environment). Retrieved from https://www.nissin.com/en_jp/sustainability/environment/resource-recycling/
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 CNN Business. (2023). Cup Noodles gets a new packaging design after decades. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/cup-noodles-new-packaging
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Instant noodles. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_noodles
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Health Canada. (2024). Food Additives: Overview. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/health‑canada/services/food‑nutrition/food‑safety/food‑additives.html
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Health Canada / CFIA. (2024). Nutrition labelling: front‑of‑package nutrition symbol. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/health‑canada/services/food‑nutrition/nutrition‑labelling/front‑package.html
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Food labelling in Canada. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_labelling_in_Canada
  46. ↑ Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). (2024). Food safety standards and labeling requirements. Retrieved from https://inspection.canada.ca/en/food-labels/labelling/industry/nutrition-labelling/nutrition-facts-table

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