Course:CONS200/2025WT2/Rehabilitation of Mangrove Ecosystems in the Sundarbans in India and Bangladesh

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Introduction

A satellite image of the Sundarbans, showing the protected mangrove forests (NASA, 2008).


The Sundarbans is a forest ecosystem in India and Bangladesh, located on the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna river deltas along the Bay of Bengal. [1]It is one of the largest mangrove ecosystems in the world, covering around 140,000 hectares, representing the largest global convergence of land, freshwater, and ocean.

Mangroves are trees and shrubs native to high-salinity tropical coastal swamps, and are key species in mangrove ecosystems such as the Sundarbans, which is known for its high biodiversity and for housing many endangered species native to the greater regional area, including the Bengal tiger, the Indian python, and several hundred bird species.[1]Due to the abundant tiger population, human-wildlife conflict is extremely common-with 22-36 people being killed annually in the Sundarbans wildcat attacks [2]. This poses a major challenge in the restoration of the ecosystem.

The Sundarbans are also home to millions of people.[3] The mangrove system protects the area from erosion and storms, provides an important source of food and resources, and holds significant cultural and economical value.[4] Additionally, they serve as an important belowground carbon sink, protecting against global climate change.[3]

However, the Sundarbans have been subject to overexploitation for decades. The most destructive disturbances include historical forest exploitation, disease, siltation, and soil alkalinity.

[5] To help restore biodiversity, community participation is the frequently cited and used rehabilitation strategy. Involvement from local communities and legal support are both integral for the recovery and maintenance of biodiversity in the Sundarbans.[6]

Although mangroves are highly resilient to sea level changes, they remain susceptible to flooding: with climate change causing sea level rises and more intense tropical cyclones, the Sundarbans are increasingly at risk.[7]

Environmental and Social Importance

Environmental Contributions

A Bengal tiger photographed in the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve, one of the region's most iconic species.

Globally, these forests protect against climate change and biodiversity loss. Underground carbon sequestration in mangroves provides a stable depository for carbon, otherwise known as a carbon sink [3].This carbon is stored in standing biomass stocks and soils, allowing for large proportions of carbon emissions to be avoided and widely regarded as a source of “blue” carbon [4]. The term "blue carbon" denotes the carbon stock sequestered by coastal vegetated ecosystems worldwide[8]. Undisturbed long-term carbon storage can last up to a millennium, as it traps harmful CO2 emissions in the mangrove sediments through a highly productive capacity [9]. In this way, anthropogenic additions to climate change can be mitigated with the Sundarban sinks which currently store around 26.26 Tg of blue carbon[10]. On the contrary, any deforestation can contribute to greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

As a coastal ecosystem, is is an excellent source of attenuating and reducing the severity of storm surges and protecting from erosion [4]. This protection is valued immensely, as the cost of damage would be high without its contribution.

In addition to the carbon benefits, the Sundarban ecosystems also contain abundant biodiversity of both flora and fauna[11]. Not only does it shelter endangered species, but the Indian Sundarbans are reported to have the largest isolated population of tigers in the world[2]. These mangrove tigers are adapted to the lack of fresh water and difficult swamp ecosystems.

Social Benefits

The Sundarban mangrove ecosystem spans across 9630 sq km of land and is home to 5 million people[3] . Mangrove forests offer various irreplaceable ecological services, as well as uphold the social structures and daily lives of millions. In villages dependent on mangrove resources, the straight stems of native species are used to construct all parts of community architecture (Houses, roofs, bridges, etc.)[12]. Over 3.5 million livelihoods are dependent on the estuarine Bangladesh area[12]. Subsistence-based jobs include:

- Wood-cutters

- Fishermen

- Honey, leaf, and grass gatherers

- Local craft creators

- Shrimp and aquaculture farming

- "Golpata" (Nypa fruticans) collectors[12]

Another contribution that the Sundarbans provide is food provision; mangroves allow for fish breeding nursery habitats, marsh grass harvesting, and more[9]. Cultural contributions include spiritual practices related to it being a sacred forest[9]. Medicinal uses within Indigenous communities offer traditional solutions to a variety of ailments, as well as plant and human pathogens [13]. Some medicines offer support for leprosy, diabetes, nausea, and hemorrhaging. In many ways, these services are difficult to assign an exact monetary value to. In some areas, mangroves are worshipped and believed to have special capabilities [14]. In the Sundarban Indian sub-continent, Hindus have been practicing holy rituals for centuries to protect from disease, animal predators, and ocean conditions. Specific resources that hold strong cultural value can not be found in other regions of the world, as the harsh aquatic ecosystem creates unique adaptations. Religion is a key cultural ecosystem service that has no replacement for money, as it drives the beliefs and lives of the community. The Sundarban mangroves offer sources for ecotourism, support local economies, and offer indispensable social contributions.

Threats to the Sundarban Mangrove Ecosystems

Measuring Biodiversity

The effects of the various threats to the Sundarban mangroves can be measured in alpha, beta, and gamma diversity: alpha diversity is measured by the species richness (i.e. the number of different species) of a specific habitat, while beta diversity is measured by the differences in species makeup between different habitats. Gamma diversity is the overall diversity of a given landscape, measured by comparing alpha and beta diversity. In the Sundarban mangroves, alpha, beta, and gamma diversity can be studied to reveal the relationships between biodiversity loss and different disturbance types.

A study from Sarker et al. examined how each disturbance (community size, upriver position, salinity, distance to riverbank, historical harvesting, city, silt concentration, disease prevalence, soil phosphorus, soil potassium, elevation, and soil ammonium) affects biodiversity. The study found that, of all of these disturbances, historic forest exploitation, disease, siltation, and soil alkalinity were the most destructive.[5]

Overexploitation

The Sundarbans have been experiencing overexploitation for decades, and in recent years, with rising populations, the illegal felling of trees for timber and firewood has become one of the biggest threats to biodiversity—canopy coverage has reduced from 78 to 24 percent between 1959 and 2010.[15] The high demand for wood, as well as unemployment rates in the area are driving this encroachment and illegal cutting.[16] In addition, overfishing and harmful fishing practices are also incredibly damaging to Sundarbans’ biodiversity rates: the catching of undersized shellfish and the draining of fish from many mangrove creeks are both significant forms of overexploitation.[15]

With growing demand for wood and unemployment in the region, illegal cutting for timber and firewood have become major problems in the Sundarbans, in addition to the clearing of large areas for human settlements in the 1960s and 70s.[15] This is largely due to population pressures; fishing and timber collection have become major income sources for locals, leading to a complicated scenario where human livelihood and ecological safety are at odds. Due to these population pressures, not only are areas being cleared for settlement, but they’re also being cleared for shrimp farming: shrimp farms have increased to ten times the area they were in 1980 (from 22,000 to 276,000 hectares).[15] Chemicals and hormones used to control pests and diseases have leached into soil, and waterways, posing threats to delicate aquatic environments. In addition to pesticides and hormones, waste from tourist ships and boats, noise pollution, and wastewater have also done damage to the mangrove ecosystem. Studies have found that trace metal concentration in aquatic animals has exceeded the tolerant limit in the Sundarbans, due to leaching of agrochemicals as well as waste and pollution in rivers.[15] Perhaps the most drastic form of pollution is oil spillage: sea ports in the region see thousands of sea vessels each year, which dump waste oil nearby, which then leaches into the water or risks oil spillages. Frequent oil spills cause irreparable damage to flora and fauna in the area.

As stated earlier, pathogens are a significant threat to the Sundarbans. Deteriorating dominant Sundari trees are victims of top dying, a disease which has affected about 70% of Sundari trees; in addition, river salinity is a very significant threat to mangrove trees: accepted salinity levels are 5-10%, but rivers and canals in the Sundarbans are at 27-33%.[12]

Lastly, more direct human impact has been detrimental. Poor education in the region combined with high dependency on local management as well as economic dependency on tourism has led to poor management of the Sundarbans.[15] While the area is protected, there is not enough institutional capacity to enforce this protection: there’s a lack of security and forest officials, as well as a lack of management of coal-fired power plants, which dump their coolant water into local rivers.[12]

Current Rehabilitation Strategies

Community-based strategies

Rehabilitation strategies for the mangrove ecosystems in the Sundarbans of India and Bangladesh increasingly emphasize community participation. This approach addresses past failures in centralized management by involving local communities directly in restoration efforts[1]. Empirical studies have demonstrated that community involvement significantly enhances the effectiveness of mangrove restoration initiatives. For instance, a study in the Indian Sundarbans revealed that plots with two years of community engagement exhibited a 71% survival rate for Rhizophora mucronata, compared to 0% in areas without community protection[1]

Legal frameworks are pivotal in facilitating stakeholder and public participation in mangrove conservation. Establishing clear legal bases for community co-management ensures public involvement and prior informed consent, aligning with existing community-based natural resource management networks[17]. These frameworks promote participatory planning processes, integrating both social and ecological considerations specific to the Sundarbans' context. Such inclusive legal arrangements are essential for the successful rehabilitation of these vital ecosystems[3]. In India, the Joint Mangrove Management (JMM) program implemented between 1996 and 2004 contributed to an increase of 616.56 km² in national mangrove cover by 2013, highlighting the value of institutionalized community participation.[18]However, in Bangladesh, co-management practices face obstacles due to inadequate policy mechanisms and weak enforcement, which often limit meaningful community engagement[19]. Complex bureaucratic systems and overlapping legal frameworks further hinder effective mangrove governance, indicating a need for streamlined coordination and accountability.[20]Incorporating an ecosystem-based approach into legal and policy instruments ensures that conservation priorities are both ecologically sound and socially equitable[21]

Stakeholder and public participation are integral to the sustainable management of the Sundarbans. Engaging local communities in decision-making processes leads to improved governance and aligns conservation efforts with livelihood needs[22]. Studies have shown that wider participation and empowerment of stakeholders result in common priorities and consensus on conservation and livelihood issues [1].This collaborative approach ensures that conservation strategies are both effective and equitable, addressing the socio-economic realities of the region[3].

Technological and Scientific Monitoring

Technological and scientific monitoring plays a critical role in the rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems in the Sundarbans of India and Bangladesh, as it allows for the collection of reliable data to inform conservation strategies[23]. Remote sensing technologies, particularly satellite imagery from Landsat, have been instrumental in tracking the changes in land cover and the extent of mangrove forests over time, helping to assess the impact of both natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Satellite imagery can effectively monitor mangrove forest dynamics, revealing long-term trends in deforestation, forest degradation, and the impacts of climate change.[23]

These remote sensing techniques not only enable the detection of large-scale changes in the mangrove cover but also assist in understanding smaller-scale dynamics within the forest ecosystems.[23] Monitoring changes in mangrove health through remote sensing can help identify areas where intervention is most needed, guiding restoration efforts and conservation strategies [24]. Scientific monitoring also plays a crucial role in evaluating the carbon sequestration capabilities of mangrove forests, which are vital in mitigating climate change[24] .

Mangroves in the Sundarbans act as significant carbon sinks, with variations in carbon storage linked to vegetation types and salinity zones. Understanding the distribution of carbon stocks in these mangrove ecosystems is crucial for developing strategies to conserve and enhance their role in global carbon cycling [24]. Additionally, technological tools have been utilized to monitor biodiversity within the mangrove ecosystem, tracking species composition and health over time[23]

The information collected through scientific monitoring is integral to identifying biodiversity hotspots and formulating targeted restoration strategies[24]. As a result, technological and scientific monitoring enhances the capacity for evidence-based decision-making, ensuring that conservation efforts are more effective and sustainable in the long term. This approach not only improves our understanding of the ecological processes in the Sundarbans but also supports more adaptive management strategies that can respond to future environmental challenges [25].

Emerging Challenges

The Sundarbans face numerous future threats due to climate change, particularly from sea level rise and the increasing frequency of tropical cyclones.

Coastal Flooding and Sea Level Rise

A mangrove forest in the Sundarbans showing damage from rising sea levels

Nearly 70% of the Sundarbans are situated less than 1m above sea level, making the region highly susceptible to flooding.[7] Coastal flooding is expected to increase in the future, as global sea levels have risen by 3.2 mm per year over recent decades,[25] with mean sea levels predicted to rise between 0.29 m and 1.1 m by the year 2100.[26]

Mangroves have been noted to have a considerable resilience to fluctuations in sea level,[27] however they require time to modify their environment through surface elevation change processes.[28] Their ability to migrate inland occurs gradually over successive generations; therefore more frequent or prolonged tidal inundation may cause mangroves to die as they do not have time to adapt.[29]

Tropical Cyclones

Studies have shown that rising sea levels and sea surface temperatures intensify tropical cyclones, with model projections indicating an average increase in intensity of 1-10% under 2°C global warming scenario[30]. Increasingly frequent and intense tropical cyclones over recent years have caused damage to the Sundarbans - Cyclone Amphan, which struck the Sundarbans in May 2020, caused damage to roughly 28% of the mangrove forest.[31]

Heritiera fomes also known as the Sunder tree - the dominant mangrove tree species of the Sundarbans.

Although much about the specific effects of tropical cyclones on mangrove ecosystems remain a contentious issue, for example the species-specific susceptibility to wind damage, a study conducted in the Sundarbans has shown that particular tree species found in the region such as Heritiera fomes are more vulnerable to cyclonic damage than other species such as Excoecaria agallocha.[32]

Mangrove species also exhibit varying tolerance and recovery abilities in response to high-cyclonic intensities.

The long-term impact of tropical cyclones on mangrove trees also depends on species-specific factors such as seed dispersal and regeneration.[33] Continued exposure to tropical cyclones may slow the recovery of a mangrove forest, reducing the Sundarbans ability to act as a protective barrier for the homes and livelihoods of its large human population in future storms.

Embankments

Currently, embankments (concrete or earthen structures) protect inhabitants in the Sundarbans from floods and "brackish water ingress". They provide security to agricultural livelihoods. The threat of cyclones, erosion, and rising sea levels can threaten embankments, while time-induced decay may also have an impact on the over 1800km system that protects the Sundarbans.[34]

Future Solutions

Future solutions involve various scientific research methods and management approaches.

Initiatives proposed by the Wildlife Conservation Society include working with local communities, promoting sustainable collection of resources, and the development of programs to improve local livelihoods[35]. They aim to spread awareness and enforce wildlife law enforcement through monitoring, alongside the Bangladesh Forest department. Another management plan is an updated version of the IMRP (Integrated Resource Management Plan), commissioned by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) [36]. Using high-tech monitoring of the Sundarbans region, illegal processes against biodiversity can be prohibited. Their main approach is co-management in the aim of helping impoverished communities, with a focus on women. By including all stakeholders in the conversation for sustainability, clear-sighted decision-making can be made for the mangrove communities.

In May 2022, WWF-India began enhancing the longevity of embankments by creating a 'living shoreline' using terracotta silt-traps that capture sediment and allow vegetation to take root, with the eventual goal of stabilising the shoreline for the future. Through a carefully designed monitoring plan, it has been proven that sediment capture using silt-traps has been successful, with an increase of roughly 2 inches of sediment height after 270 days of installation.[37]

Conclusion

The Sundarbans Mangrove Ecosystems are incredibly ecologically and culturally important, as they aid in carbon sequestration, trapping CO2 emissions and protecting the atmosphere from greenhouse gases.[3] They also protect the region by reducing the severity of tropical cyclones as well as reducing soil erosion.[4] They also have high biodiversity levels, sheltering endangered species.[11] They’re also incredibly culturally important, as they house five million people who depend on the mangrove ecosystem for agroecosystems and resources and who see it as a sacred forest.[9] However, with a history of overexploitation, they have experienced extreme decline in biodiversity. Growing populations have increased demand in wood products and employment, leading to more illegal cutting for timber and firewood, as well as clearing of land for settlements and farming. Agrochemicals and pollution from tourism ships have polluted waterways, and pathogens and high salinity have deteriorated mangrove trees’ health.[15]

With more community participation and stronger legal frameworks, the Sundarbans can be rehabilitated. Studies have shown community engagement has extremely positive effects on native plants, and legislature would help facilitate this.[18] In addition, scientific monitoring is vital in demonstrating the importance of the Sundarbans as well as maintaining the health of the ecosystem.[24] But climate change threatens the Sundarbans: these ecosystems are at sea level, putting them in danger of flooding as sea levels rise and tropical cyclones become more and more intense. [27]

Future research about the Sundarbans and new management approaches will be vital in the coming years, and recent technologies and movements will be key in continuing to protect the Sundarban mangrove ecosystems.[35]

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.[38]

  1. ↑ Jump up to: 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 "The Sundarbans". UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Retrieved April 4, 2025. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":0" defined multiple times with different content
  2. ↑ Jump up to: 2.0 2.1 Naha, D., Jhala, Y. V., Qureshi, Q., Roy, M., Sankar, K., & Gopal, R. (2016). Ranging, activity and habitat use by tigers in the mangrove forests of the sundarban. PLOS ONE, 11(4), e0152119. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152119
  3. ↑ Jump up to: 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Ranjan, Ram (February 2019). "Optimal mangrove restoration through community engagement on coastal lands facing climatic risks: The case of Sundarbans region in India". Land Use Policy. 81: 736–749. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.11.047 Check |doi= value (help). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":1" defined multiple times with different content
  4. ↑ Jump up to: 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Barbier, Edward, B. (30 August 2016). "The protective service of mangrove ecosystems: A review of valuation methods". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 109 (2): 676–681. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.033 Check |doi= value (help).
  5. ↑ Jump up to: 5.0 5.1 Sarker, Swapan Kumar; Reeve, Richard; Paul, Nirmal K.; Matthiopoulos, Jason (10 January 2019). "Modelling spatial biodiversity in the world's largest mangrove ecosystem—The Bangladesh Sundarbans: A baseline for conservation". Diversity and Distributions. 25 (5): 729–742. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12887 Check |doi= value (help) – via Wiley Open Access.
  6. ↑ Chowdhury, Abhiroop; Naz, Aliya; Maiti, Subodh Kumar (21 June 2024). "Community-based, cost-effective multispecies mangrove restoration innovation to maximize soil blue carbon pool and humic acid and fulvic acid concentrations at Indian Sundarbans". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33918-2 Check |doi= value (help) – via Springer Nature Link.
  7. ↑ Jump up to: 7.0 7.1 Siddiqi, N.A. (2001). Mangrove Forestry in Bangladesh. University of Chittagong.
  8. ↑ Neilemann, C; Corcoran, E (2009). Blue Carbon: The Role of Healthy Oceans in Binding Carbon: A Rapid Response Assessment. Norway: GRID-Arendal. pp. 1–78. ISBN 978-82-7701-060-1.
  9. ↑ Jump up to: 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. W., Stier, A. C., & Silliman, B. R. (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs, 81(2), 169–193. https://doi.org/10.1890/10-1510.1
  10. ↑ Chanda, Abhra; Akhand, Anirban (August 2023). "Challenges towards the Sustainability and Enhancement of the Indian Subdarban Mangrove's Blue Carbon Stock". Life. 13(8): 1787 – via MDPI.
  11. ↑ Jump up to: 11.0 11.1 Chanda, A., & Akhand, A. (2023). Challenges towards the sustainability and enhancement of the indian sundarban mangrove’s blue carbon stock. Life, 13(8), 1787. https://doi.org/10.3390/life13081787
  12. ↑ Jump up to: 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Selim, S. A., Saha, S. K., Sultana, R., & Roberts, C. (Eds.). (2019). The environmental sustainable development goals in Bangladesh. Routledge. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":15" defined multiple times with different content
  13. ↑ Vinoth, R., Kumaravel, S., & Ranganathan, R. (2019). Therapeutic and traditional uses of mangrove plants. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 9(4-s), 849–854. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v9i4-s.3457
  14. ↑ Mitra, A. (2020). Mangroves: A natural ecosystem of cultural and religious convergence. In A. Mitra (Ed.), Mangrove Forests in India: Exploring Ecosystem Services (pp. 337–352). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20595-9_10
  15. ↑ Jump up to: 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 Islam, Mohammad Mahmudul; Sunny, Atiqur Rahman; Hossain, Mohammad Mosarof; Friess, Daniel A. (2018). "Drivers of mangrove ecosystem service change in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh". Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography. 39 (2): 173–323. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/sjtg.12241 Check |doi= value (help) – via Wiley Online Library.
  16. ↑ Islam, S. M. Didar-Ul; Bhuiyan, Mohammad Amir Hossain (23 July 2018). "Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh: causes of degradation and sustainable management options". Environmental Sustainability. 1: 113–131 – via Springer Nature Link.
  17. ↑ Mohammad, Sheikh Noor (2019). "Integration of the ecosystem approach in legal and policy framework for the sustainable conservation of mangrove forest in Bangladesh: a case study of the Sundarbans ecosystem. Macquarie University. Thesis".
  18. ↑ Jump up to: 18.0 18.1 D'Souza, N. M; Ishwar, N. M; Sumra, I; Vyas, P (2017). "Participatory Wetland Management: A Solution to Conservation Challenges in the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve".
  19. ↑ Hossain, M; Rahman, M; Uddin, S (2024). "Evaluating co-management in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh. Ecology and Society, 29(2)".
  20. ↑ Islam, M. A; Sarker, S.K (2025). "Institutionalising co-management activities for conservation of forest resources in the Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh. Marine Policy, 171, 106460".
  21. ↑ Mohammad, Sheikh Noor (2019). "Integration of the ecosystem approach in legal and policy framework for the sustainable conservation of mangrove forest in Bangladesh: a case study of the Sundarbans ecosystem. Macquarie University. Thesis".
  22. ↑ Ram, Rajan (2019). "Optimal mangrove restoration through community engagement on coastal lands facing climatic risks: The case of Sundarbans region in India".
  23. ↑ Jump up to: 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Giri, C; Pengra, B; Zhu, Z; Singh, A (2022). "Land cover change across 45 years in the world's largest mangrove forest (Sundarbans): the contribution of remote sensing in forest monitoring".
  24. ↑ Jump up to: 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Rahman, Mizanur; Khan, Nabiul (2015). "Carbon stock in the Sundarbans mangrove forest: spatial variations in vegetation types and salinity zones".
  25. ↑ Jump up to: 25.0 25.1 Church, J.; White, N. "Sea-level rise from the late 19th to the early 20th century". Surveys in Geophysics. 32: 585–602 – via Web of Science.
  26. ↑ "Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate". IPCC. September 2019. Retrieved 10/03/2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  27. ↑ Jump up to: 27.0 27.1 Woodroffe, C. (J.). "Mangrove biogeography: the role of Quaternary environmental and sea level change". Journal of Biogeography. 18: 479–492 – via Google Scholar. |first2= missing |last2= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  28. ↑ Krauss, K.W.; Allen, J.A.; Ewel, K.C.; Johnson, D.J. "Effects of season, rainfall, and hydrogeomorphic setting on mangrove tree growth in Micronesia". Biotropica. 39: 2 – via Google Scholar.
  29. ↑ Ward, Raymond D.; Friess, Daniel A.; Day, Richard H.; MacKenzie, Richard A. (25 April 2016). "Impacts of climate change on mangrove ecosystems: a region by region overview". Ecosystem Health and Sustainability. 2 – via Wiley Online Library.
  30. ↑ "Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis". IPCC. 6 August 2021. Retrieved 10/03/2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  31. ↑ Khatun, S.K.; Rahaman, Mujibar; Ranjan, A.; Ghosh, B.G.; Kumar, A.; Tiwari, S. (2022). "Assessing the Impact of Super Cyclone Amphan on Indian Sundarban Biosphere Reserve" (PDF). Indian Journal of Ecology. 49: 2236.
  32. ↑ Halder, Nirmol Kumar; Merchant, Andrew; Misbahuzzaman, Khaled; Wagner, Sven; Mukul, Sharif A. (2021). "Why some trees are more vulnerable during catastrophic cyclone events in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh?". Forest Ecology and Management. 490 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  33. ↑ Sloey, Taylor M.; Charles, Sean P.; Xiong, Lin; Castaneda-Maya, Edward; Yando, Erik S.; Lagomasino, DAvid (December 2024). "Challenges to and importance of considering early and intermediate ontogenetic stages in mangrove forest recovery and restoration". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 209, Part B – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  34. ↑ Chaudhuri, S.; Chaudhuri, P.; Ghosh, R. (2022). "The impact of embankments on the geomorphic and ecological evolution of the deltaic landscape of the Indo-Bangladesh Sundarbans". River Deltas Research – via InTechOpen.
  35. ↑ Jump up to: 35.0 35.1 Hub, K. (2018, July 26). Wildlife conservation society bangladesh mangrove initiatives. The Mangrove Alliance. https://www.mangrovealliance.org/wcs-bangladesh/
  36. ↑ giz. (n.d.). Management of the sundarbans. Retrieved April 11, 2025, from https://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/37949.html
  37. ↑ "Living Shoreline: A nature-based solution to protect the Sundarbans". WWF India. n.d. Retrieved 11 April 2025. |first= missing |last= (help)
  38. ↑ En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].


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