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Course:CONS200/2025FL1/Challenges and prospects of the new National Parks System in China

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General Overview

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China’s national park system, formally launched in 2016 with five pilot sites, covers approximately 57 million acres and aims to protect ecologically valuable regions while supporting public welfare[1]. The initiative addresses biodiversity loss and environmental degradation caused by decades of industrialization, urbanization, and deforestation[2].

Human activities such as conventional tourism, infrastructure development, and traditional livelihoods in park regions can conflict with conservation goals, creating challenges for ecosystem management and long-term sustainability[3].

The severity of these impacts varies by region. Sanjiangyuan National Park, for example, encompasses the headwaters of the Yangtze, Yellow, and Lancang rivers, making it highly sensitive to environmental disturbances[4]. Wuyishan and Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Parks protect unique biodiversity, including newly discovered species and critically endangered primates, emphasizing both the ecological value and vulnerability of these areas [5].

Variables influencing environmental and social impacts include local population density, types of human activity, infrastructure, and park-specific governance policies [6]. By establishing a centralized, unified management system, China aims to reduce fragmentation, balance conservation with socioeconomic needs, and strengthen the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services[7].

History of National Parks in China

The idea of preserving land for its natural and cultural value has deep roots in China. As early as the Qin Dynasty, large areas of land were set aside by emperors and nobles for recreation, hunting, and reflection. However, these early spaces were imperial gardens and private reserves rather than conservation areas [8]. The transition toward ecological preservation began in the late twentieth century as rapid industrialization and population growth placed mounting pressure on China’s ecosystems.

Modern efforts to protect natural areas officially began in 1982 with the creation of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, recognized as China’s first national park. This marked a shift from cultural and aesthetic appreciation toward environmental protection and resource management (Wang et al., 2012). Through the 1980s and 1990s, the number of protected areas expanded as the Chinese government sought to conserve biodiversity and promote sustainable tourism. However, this growth occurred under multiple ministries and local authorities, each applying different standards and goals. By the 2000s, China had established thousands of nature reserves, forest parks, and scenic areas, yet the system became fragmented and inconsistent, with overlapping jurisdictions and weak enforcement [8].

A major turning point came in 1998, when flooding along the Yangtze River revealed the environmental cost of decades of deforestation. The disaster caused the government to enact large-scale reforestation programs and stricter conservation policies. Many depleted logging regions were converted into National Forest Parks, which served both as ecological barriers and as sources of income through tourism[8]. During this period, more than a thousand new parks were created between 2000 and 2008, reflecting both growing environmental awareness and the rise of a middle class seeking domestic nature-based tourism opportunities.

China’s engagement with international conservation organizations also shaped this evolution. In 1998, environmentalist Rose Niu, working with The Nature Conservancy, helped introduce the concept of the Western national park model in Northwest Yunnan, demonstrating that conservation could coexist with sustainable economic development . This collaboration was the foundation for what would become China’s modern national park system. Years later, in 2015, the Paulson Institute signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with China’s National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) to design a unified national park framework. The partnership helped inform the government’s official Overall Plan for China’s National Park System, providing recommendations on how to manage parks more effectively and train future park officials [9].

That same year, China announced ten pilot national parks, including the Sanjiangyuan National Park on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. These pilots tested new governance models that emphasized ecosystem integrity, centralized oversight, and local community participation. Evaluations of the Sanjiangyuan pilot, led by former U.S. National Park Service Director Jonathan Jarvis, identified both successes and areas for improvement, helping the government develop a long-term assessment framework for future parks [9].

In 2021, China officially established its first batch of five national parks: Sanjiangyuan, Giant Panda, Northeast Tiger and Leopard, Hainan Tropical Rainforest, and Wuyishan. Together, these parks cover nearly 230,000 square kilometers and protect around 30 percent of China’s key terrestrial wildlife species[8].  The creation of these parks marked a decisive shift from fragmented management to a unified, centrally coordinated system. Over several decades, China’s approach to protected areas has evolved from isolated forest reserves to an integrated national framework that seeks to balance ecological protection, local livelihoods, and sustainable tourism. This reflects an ongoing transformation in how the nation understands and preserves its natural heritage [9].

Implementation of the New National Parks System in China

The creation of China's New NPS, officially launched with the first five parks in 2021, has been a remarkably fast and profound change in the country's approach to the conservation imperative, putting "ecological protection first" over the often-conflicting priorities of the past[10]. Centrally driven reforms aimed to unify the fragmented protected area landscape-reducing the total number of protected areas from over 9,000 to around 6,700-and consolidating the mandates for governance under a central authority[11]. This strategic redesign of administrations has eliminated the jurisdictional overlap and inconsistency that made many previous reserves "Paper Parks". The amalgamation of ecologically important areas into unified spatial units, often using functional zoning of core conservation zones and general control zones, enabled ecosystem-based management supportive of landscape-scale connectivity, with documented benefits evident in the recovery of keystone species such as the Giant Panda and Amur Tiger.

Yet, despite these administrative and ecological successes, the transformative potential of implementation is still persistently tested by the parallel imperatives of social integration and local livelihoods' assurance. The alignment of community socio-economic needs in or adjacent to large new park areas is yet very crucial for long-term sustainability[12]. Implementation has to navigate between the strict protection, potentially leading to the displacement or restriction of traditional resource use, and the need to support cultural vitality and poverty reduction in underdeveloped regions. The system's eventual success will depend on the extent it embeds conservation objectives into all sectors for ecological resilience while cultivating a sustainable tourism industry.

Goals of the New National Parks System

China’s new National Parks system could be used to unify, improve and modernize the country's current approach to sustainable development and conservation. This new system seeks to not only create more national parks, but restore fragmented ecosystems, develop national frameworks that prioritize and manage ecological protection as well as sustainable development.

Unify and Streamline Management

First and foremost, a central goal is to properly integrate the current network of sustainable projects, national parks and more under a singular united system. In doing this, a new administration could ensure standardized regulations, consistent zoning and increasingly effective protection of ecosystems. This would result in reduced administrative overlap, and more unified and fixed goals moving forward. To add to this, by linking parks via sharing data and regulations, research programs and management would thrive, ; thereby improving the enforcement capacity through centralized ecological monitoring. [13]

Preserve Ecological Integrity and Biodiversity

Another objective of this new parks service would be to prioritize the conservation of biodiverse ecosystems. These parks could be designed to protect endangered species while maintaining ecosystem functionality through water regulation, soil stabilisation and carbon sequestration. This goal could reflect China’s vision of “ecological civilization”, as to preserve the foundation of China through sustainable development. Protecting habitats that are home to endangered species would not only maintain biodiversity, but encourage eco-tourism and promote international cooperation. If ideas like wildlife corridors so animals could move between protected land this could also further this goal. [14]

Balance Conservation with Sustainable Use

While the priority of these new National Parks would be the latter, allowing responsible human use could be used to further educational goals, as well as promote public engagement and support for the program. Visitors could come from far and wide to marvel at the beauty of nature, while also increasing the local Chinese people's connection to this nature that surrounds them. For this to be done, there would need to be strict policies and ideals set in place to make sure that the environmental safety was a priority. For this to be done things like: limits on visitor numbers to prevent overcrowding, designated trails and viewing areas, and large parts of the tourism revenue being put back into the parks. If this was done, ecotourism could become a profitable and sustainable form of revenue for the Chinese government and further incentive to protect China's nature and biodiversity. [15]

Strengthen Global Relationships

Finally, a new and more sustainable National Parks Service could represent a step forward in the political alignment of Western countries. By protecting the environment and land, a global and unified goal of conservation could not only save the planet, but encourage further cooperation between nations. Working with international conservation groups like the IUCN [16]or WWF to share knowing could demonstrate that China is not only focused on itself, but international relations as well. This could lead to China participating in global biodiversity and climate agreements, inviting foreign scientist to collaborate on national parks, and also learning from other countries methods to improve their own methods of biodiversity maintenance and sustainable practices.

Challenges arising from the New National Parks System in China, and their Potential Solutions

Negative Impacts on Local Communities

China's planned national park coverage is massive, and will cover the traditional homes of hundreds of thousands of people. While some of the local communities found within national parks will be given positions within the parks, many communities will also be displaced. For example, in the Quilian Mountains National Park, 54,000 people will be forcefully relocated by 2025[1]. Furthermore, local communities has voiced displeasure with some of the aspects regarding tourism in their communities. The higher costs of living and seasonality of the economy have been listed as reasons for local dissatisfaction with national parks[6].

Ecological Benefits of the New National Parks System in China

As the world faces what may be the sixth mass extinction[7], China is taking action to mitigate rapid biodiversity and ecosystem loss from anthropogenic impacts through policy and new protected areas[17]. In order to meet SDG 15[3], China is making efforts to broaden its system of protected areas[18]. Indeed, China's National Parks System is based on the principle of "ecological protection first and public welfare a priority"[2]. Notably, China's nationwide efforts to contribute to conservation will not only benefit China's sustainability, but global conservation goals as well[18]. The following illustrates the unique characteristics of each park that make them so important for conservation:

Sanjiangyuan National Park (SNP)

Qinghai Hoh Xil, located in the northeastern extremity of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, is the largest and highest plateau in the world. Part of Hoh Xil is located within Sanjiangyuan National Park[19].

Sanjiangyuan National Park (SNP) was one of the 5 pilot sites launched in 2016, and was formally established as a national park in 2021[20]. It covers a range of ecosystems, including alpine forests, grasslands, and meadows[18] Furthermore, SNP is incredibly important for Asia's hydrology, as the headwaters of three of the continents major rivers are located within the park, including the Yangtze, the Yellow River, and the Lancang (Mekong River). Sanjianyuang National Park is also home to the world's largest population of snow leopards, as well as other endangered species, highlighting its importance as a protected area[4].



Wuyishan National Park (WNP)

Mount Wuyi

Wuyishan National Park (WNP) was also one of the pilot sites of the new national park system, was initially launched in 2017, and was formally established as a national park in 2021[20]. Importantly, the park serves as the headwater for the Min River, an integral part of the regions hydrological cycle[21]. Additionally, the park is known for rich biodiversity in plants, reptiles, and amphibians[22]. Notably, in 2025, 34 new species were discovered in the park[5].



Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park (HTRNP)

Vegetation surrounding a small body of water in Hainan Province, China

Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park was founded as a pilot site in 2019, and formally established as a national park in 2021, and covers 15% of the island province of Hainan[20]. The park serves to conserve China's largest expanse of tropical rainforest, which includes mountainous terrain[8]. Furthermore, the region is home the world's most endangered primate, the Hainan Gibbon[8].




Giant Panda National Park (GPNP)

A giant panda enjoying bamboo.

Giant Panda National Park was founded as a pilot site in 2017 and formally established as a national park in 2021, and covers a discontinuous range of land across three provinces in China[20]. Importantly, the park covers the native range of the giant panda, and focuses on bamboo-rich mountainous ecosystemsc[23]. Other than the giant panda, the GPNP is also home to two endangered and endemic species to China, the red panda and the golden snub-nosed monkey [24].



Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park (NTLNP)

An Amur tiger and its cub in captivity at the Buffalo Zoo.

Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park (NTLNP) was initially a pilot site formed in 2016 and was formally established as a national park in 2021[20]. This park is built to accommodate the last remaining populations of some of the most endangered big cats in the world, the Amur tiger and the Amur leopard[18]. The ecosystems in this park typically consist of mixed conifer and broadleaf forests[18].





Economic Benefits of the New National Parks system in China

National Impacts

Tourism in China is a massive industry. In 2025, tourism contributed nearly just over $1.9 trillion USD to the national economy [25]. Furthermore, China's tourism sector is forecast nearly 83 millions jobs[25]. China's new national parks system will greatly contribute to their economy. However, currently in 2025, it is unlikely that China has made a profit yet on their investment, as they have already invested hundreds of millions of dollars into the new system[26]. As the system is still in its infancy as of 2025, the profitability of China's national parks system should be monitored throughout the future to assess its economic impacts.

Local Impacts

Economic impact has been strongly linked how good or bad local residents view tourism in their area[27]. China's new national parks system will employ thousands of local people and communities, already 50,000 local residents have been employed as 'ecological guardians'[28]. Tourism, especially in rural communities has been seen to increase local incomes and build important infrastructure that connects these communities to existing road networks[29]. However, not all of the economic impacts of the expanded park system are viewed favourably by local communities. The higher costs of living and seasonality of the local economy due to tourism are cited as common grievances residents have[6]. Furthermore, concerns were raised regarding potential economic vulnerabilities due to heavy reliance on tourism that can easily be effected by severe weather events, which are uncontrollable by local communities.

Conclusion

China's nascent national park system marks one significant stride toward striking a balance between ecological protection and human well-being. By prioritizing biodiversity conservation, actively engaging local communities, and encouraging sustainable tourism, China is moving away from a more exclusionary model of conservation toward a decidedly more inclusive and collaborative approach. Challenges persist, such as how to manage development pressures and community conflicts, but the focus on education, ecotourism, and shared stewardship presents a promising avenue for long-term compatibility among people and nature.

References[9]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "China is building the worlds' largest national parks system". PHYS.org. December 13, 2021. Retrieved December 4 2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 He, Siyuan (12 June 2018). "Taking an ecosystem services approach for a new national park system in China". Resources, Conservation, and Recycling. 137: 136–144 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Walsh, Patrick Paul (2022). Sustainable Development Goals Series. Springer, Cham. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-3-031-07461-5.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "National Development and Reform Council National Development and Reform Council Announces Publication of the Comprehensive Plan for Sanjiangyuan National Park". National Development and Reform Commission. 2018. Retrieved 01 November 2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Yan, Li (27 February 2025). "34 new species discovered in Wuyishan National Park". Chinese News Service. Retrieved 01 November 2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Gong, Jian (March 5 2021). "Resident support in China's new national parks: an extension of the Prism of Sustainability". Current Issues in Tourism. 26 – via Taylor and Francis. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Barnosky, Anthony D. (02 March 2011). "Has the Earth's sixth mass extinction event already arrived?". nature. 471: 51–57 – via nature. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Wang, Shijie (29 May 2025). "Securing the future of Hainan's Tropical Rainforest: challenges and strategies for conservation". Frontiers for Global Change. 8 – via frontiers.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Zhu, D., Wu, C., Ren, H., & Hui, D. (2024). Building national parks to protect key ecosystems in China. Biological Diversity, 1(3–4), 193–198. https://doi.org/10.1002/bod2.12029
  10. ↑ "Ma, K., Lei, G., Ouyang, Z., Yang, R., Zhang, Y., & Li, D. (2022). Beginning: China's national park system. National Science Review, 9(10). [URL: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9522396/] (Accessed via: Ma et al., 2022)". External link in |title= (help)
  11. ↑ "Cheng, Y. (2024). Scaling Up Mainstreaming Biodiversity through National Park Reforms in China. BioScience Central Applications. [URL: https://bcas.edpsciences.org/articles/bcas/full_html/2025/01/bcas2025001/bcas2025001.html] (Accessed via: Cheng, 2024)". External link in |title= (help)
  12. ↑ "Wang, X., Lu, X., & Chen, G. (2023). Challenges and Opportunities in Aligning Conservation with Development in China's National Parks: A Narrative Literature Review. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6. [URL: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9566203/] (Accessed via: Wang et al., 2023)". External link in |title= (help)
  13. ↑ "China plans to expand national park system". December 29, 2022. |first= missing |last= (help)
  14. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions: Ecosystem Integrity and International Policy" (PDF). August 2021. line feed character in |title= at position 28 (help); |first= missing |last= (help)
  15. ↑ "Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Guidelines for Planning and Management" (PDF). May 2002. |first= missing |last= (help)
  16. ↑ "The restoration initiative named a world restoration flagship under the UN Decade on ecosystem restoration". 2025, November 13. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ↑ Zheng, Hua (05 April 2019). "Realizing the values of natural capital for inclusive, sustainable development: Informing China's new ecological development strategy". PNAS. 116 – via PNAS. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Rule, Andrew (6 October 2022). "Challenges and Opportunities in Aligning Conservation with Development in China's National Parks: A Narrative Literature Review". Int J Environ Res Public Health – via National Library of Medicine.
  19. ↑ "Qinghai Hoh Xil". UNESCO World Heritage Convention. 01 November 2025. Retrieved 01 November 2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Tang, Xiaoping (December 2020). "The establishment of national park system: A new milestone for the field of nature conservation in China". International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks. 8: 195–202 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  21. ↑ Jingpei, Qui (26 July 2025). "Destination image of China's National parks from a stakeholder perspective". Scientific Reports. 15 – via nature.
  22. ↑ Xinyue, Fan (24 July 2025). "Ecological integrity assessment system for Wuyishan national park". Ecological Indicators. 178 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  23. ↑ Huang, Qiongyu (June 2020). "Giant Panda National Park, a step towards streamlining protected areas and cohesive conservation management in China". Global Ecology and Conservation. 22 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  24. ↑ "SW China's Sichuan pushes forward Giant Panda National Park development". People's Daily Online. 10 October 2025. Retrieved 01 November 2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "China Surges Ahead: Travel & Tourism Sector Forecast to Hit a Record ¥13.7TN This Year". World Travel and Tourism Council. April 30th 2025. Retrieved December 4th 2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  26. ↑ Megroz, Gordy (August 26 2025). "What can the US learn from China's ambitious national park plans?". Adventure.com. Retrieved December 4 2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  27. ↑ Cottrell, S.P. (July 18 2007). "A framework for monitoring and modelling sustainable tourism" (PDF). CABI Digital Library. Retrieved December 4 2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  28. ↑ Liqiang, Hou (August 20 2025). "Country advances national park system, enhancing ecological conservation". China Daily. Retrieved December 4 2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  29. ↑ Zhong, Linsheng (October 2008). "Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China". Tourism Management. 29 – via Elsevier Science Direct.


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