Course:CONS200/2024WT1/Ecotourism Threats on Sacred Grove Conservation

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Sacred groves are forested areas with spiritual significance to certain groups, and cultural atmosphere that is very well known. These areas, which are often made up of superabundant greens that form a forest, are full of significance to a wide variety of people, including the indigenous communities. Additionally, they are considered to be the home of gods, spirits, and ancestors.

Natural sacred sites are found on all continents except Antarctica. Ourexamples come from 33 different countries – three each from North and South America;five from Europe; 12 from Africa; eight from Asia; and two from Oceania. Numbers inparentheses indicate the total number of examples from that country. In addition to theseexamples, three others – two from Europe and one from the whole world – represented more than one country and are not shown.
Global distribution of sacred groves.[1]

Sacred forests are found in different geographical areas, ranging from ancient Celtic forests and sacred spaces in Greece or Rome to well-preserved forest areas in Africa, India, and Japan. Each forest holds a different meaning, as some are dedicated specifically to natural spirits, and others serve in public spaces for ceremonies, celebrations, and festivals. In many areas, the tradition of preserving sacred forests plays a key role in safeguarding local biodiversity. Additionally, sacred groves are also often marked by populations of indigenous people who have been catering to said areas throughout history, making the history of these populations deeply entwined with the history of the land itself.

Ecotourism opportunities are also presented with the defining of sacred groves. Natural vestibules and areas of beauty or environmental significance showcase ecological peculiarities that can draw tourism from all the over the world - another paradox that allows room for discussion on the cost/benefit analysis of providing such amenities to the areas of such critical ecosystems to begin with.

Cultural Values

Sacred groves are important cultural monuments across the globe. They serve as spiritual places, often in worship to a deity, built around a temple, or as burial sites[2]. Conservation of critical areas within ecosystems that exist as avenues of high species interaction, or areas that harbour a variety of keystone species is critical in ensuring that “sacred groves” are left in a manner that ensures the continuation of the given natural process. Harbouring such key natural processes has resulted in a religious reverence towards these areas of nature and wilderness.[1][3] Such reverence has caused a discussion to begin as to whether or not these places are to be protected in the same manner as churches or other religious domiciles. Supporters of sacred groves and forests argue for this being the case, so it was to ensure long-standing protection of these areas, as they harbour long-standing natural processes.

The historical use of these sacred vestibules is evident. When combining the study of ecology with anthropological analysis, we are able to understand that humans have for a long time at least in certain areas had an understanding that these areas of nature were critical. Not only were they critical to the continued survival of people, but also to the ecosystem as a whole, with people acting as a part of the ecosystem rather than aside from it. This has been noted in the study to have occurred in northeastern India.[2][4]

It is very clear that sacred groves also face anthropogenic pressures. These pressures include the expansion of structure used in the modern era, such as roads for automobiles, the gutting of forests and other green space for extensive pasture, land, or other larger, more physically constructed monuments to religion rather than sacred natural vestibules has caused unnecessary strain on these key areas.[5]

Threats

With the introduction of mainstream religions (eg. Christianity, Islam) and colonial expansion and development, many sacred forests are under threat. During the Northern Crusades, for example, many forests in Europe were destroyed to erase the beliefs that grew with them. Sacred forests in Africa and Asia were also neglected in land management policies, resulting in their switch to agricultural land.

Since 2006, it can be seen that research on sacred groves and the remote populations that utilize these areas[6] have not only been noting their importance but also the pressures they face. Many modern interventions of land management done for the sake of conservation often complete an inverse task; regulations and developments put in place to help with ecological sustainability often can impact these remote communities and their values towards the land. Instead, healthier solutions that prioritize the land as well as the beliefs of the local community is paramount. Legal, rightful, ownership and a development to our values of conservation, nature, and how we interpret the spiritual value of nature is suggested as a way to better understand the ancient theory behind sacred groves.

Despite these challenges, the Holy Forest continues to prevail in some cultures. In India, for example, thousands of sacred forests from centuries ago are still protected by local communities to this day. In Japan, Shinto shrines are often surrounded by sacred forests, reflecting the belief that gods inhabit nature. Ethiopia has also kept the sacred forest surrounding the church as an integral part of its religious practices. Countries that have reinforced not only their oldest ecosystems but also oldest populations have, for expected centuries even, allowed their numbers to endure ever longer. By conserving the health of keystone ecosystems and their historic stewards, it is evident that threats to sacred groves are threats to sacred native populations of humans as well.

Ecological Significance

Ecosystem Services

Sacred groves offer numerous benefits that can be quantified as ecosystem services. The ecosystem service model allows the benefits of ecosystems to be evaluated, quantified, and often attributed economic value. Sacred groves have substantial value across all four categories of ecosystem services: supporting, regulatory, provisioning, and cultural.[7]

Supporting

Sacred grove ecosystems are often relic primary forests or other climax communities characterized by large trees, rich litter coverage, and less compact soils than surrounding areas.[8] The structures and relationships in these forests are complex models of mature feedback loops and supporting services. Sacred groves are most prominent in Africa and East Asia,[1] encompassing a broad range of ecoregions, including seasonal monsoon forests, dry tropical forests, and mosaic scrubland.[9] Many of these groves are located in regions considered to be biodiversity hotspots, like the Guinean forests of West Africa, or the Western Ghats in India.[10]

Numerous studies have investigated the biodiversity of sacred groves, inventorying species composition and richness, dominance, distribution, rarity and endemism.[11] Sacred groves are valuable habitats for rare or threatened endemic species and have higher than average vascular plant diversity. The density of ethnobotanically important species is very rich in sacred sites, as local stewards prioritize the conservation of useful plants.[12][13] In the Manipur valley, some plant species have disappeared from localities and are confined to sacred sites.[12] Sacred sites also support a significant diversity of animal life, especially birds.[2] Intact groves in humanized landscapes offer refuge for local fauna. While these patches are generally too small to support large fauna, they support an array of smaller animal species.[11]

Regulatory

Sacred groves are valuable regulators of watersheds and soil quality. Sacred groves have been shown to have higher porosity and lower bulk density than surrounding areas, especially when compared to cultivated land.[2] Higher soil porosity increases the capacity for water retention, aeration, root growth, and facilitates biotic activity. In addition to soil structure and quality, large evergreens and litter-covered forest floors increase the moisture availability in sacred groves.[8] Their canopy structures create shelter from sun and wind, creating interior microclimates that reduce soil dehydration and plant desiccation.[14] The increased water availability in sacred groves is coupled with their potential for regulating water quality. While the specific balance of water pH, nitrate, total alkalinity and hardness is dependent on the environmental matrix and dominant species of an area, preserved forest sites generally have good water quality indices.[15] The capacity for flood mitigation and reduced runoff during monsoon seasons is of additional importance to regulating water quality for downstream villages and ecosystems.[16]

The biomass in old-growth forests is a significant global carbon sink. Tree diversity, basal area, and soil organic carbon are positively correlated with carbon stock and CO2 mitigation capacity.[17] Tree size, stem diversity, and community structure vary across sacred groves, although their aboveground biomass is generally higher than surrounding areas.[18] Biodiversity is an asset for carbon sequestration, and protected ecological communities are valuable in mitigating the effects of global climate change.[17]

Provisioning

Sacred groves are often important provisioning sites for local populations. They do not serve as sources of timber products since cutting down trees violates the sanctity of the sacred spaces.[19] Instead, they are sources of non-timber forest products, like useful macrofungi and plants. Many of these plants are culturally important medicinal plants with well-documented uses. For example, an inventory of four sacred groves in Manipur, India, revealed over 120 plants used by the Meitei people for medicinal purposes. The uses of these plants range from herbal cures for illness to shampoo and detergents.[20]

Because of their role in maintaining watershed health, sacred groves improve the availability of water in the surrounding landscape.[7] Sacred sites with dense vegetation have an increased capacity for water retention, ensuring year-round water availability for downstream villages. This offers direct economic benefits by facilitating commercial crop growth, allowing higher economic returns than villages limited by the dry season.[8] Adjacent communities additionally benefit from the quality of water, as many sites meet the WHO standards for potable water.[16]

Cultural

See also: Cultural Values

In addition to the religious values associated with sacred groves, they provide aesthetic and recreational services for local populations.[7] These values are particularly important in urban environments where sacred groves serve as public green spaces.[21]

Conservation Synergies

The conservation of sacred forests is primarily influenced by the intrinsic spiritual value ascribed by indigenous populations, as opposed to the contemporary use of laws and regulations to protect biodiversity based on its ecological merits. There are many synergies between traditional cultural practices and ecological sustainability.[12][1] Many faiths attribute an inherent sacred value to nature, incorporating environmental behaviour into religious practices. In some cases spiritual importance is attached to a specific animal or plant species, which regulates human use of the species. Sometimes these sacred species have practical uses, like farm animals or medicinal plants; certain species are associated with deities or otherwise seen as exceptionally powerful.[22]

Sacred groves apply these beliefs to distinct geographical areas. The specific practices informing the sanctity of grove sites are different across localities. In many cases, fear is the driving factor behind the conservation of sacred groves as natural spaces.[22] There is an understanding that if an individual harms or exploits the environment in a way that contradicts the sanctity of the natural space, they will be punished by a deity or other higher power.[2]

Ecological Degradation and Climate Change

While traditional cultural values have protected sacred groves, they are not immutable. They are eroding under compounding stress, and their capacity to maintain biodiversity is under threat.[2] The proximity of sacred groves to human settlements makes them exceptionally vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbances like timber harvesting, agriculture, pastoralism, or the construction of roads. Sacred groves are often very small and isolated, with reduced gene flow and limited seed dispersal.[23] Isolated stands without connective corridors rely on the surrounding matrix for their network structure. Since sacred groves are often surrounded by human settlements, they are particularly reliant in the surrounding landscape for sustained health.[13]

A unique threat to sacred groves lies in the deterioration of cultural values. As globalization assimilates traditional beliefs into the dominant economic paradigm, the cultural motivation for protecting sacred sites and species is being lost.[2]

Benefits of Ecotourism

While ecotourism is largely detrimental to sacred grove ecosystems, there are also several arguments for ecotourism. Ecotourism also has the potential to make a positive impact on sacred groves and the surrounding communities.

Conservation

As many sacred groves lose their cultural significance due to modernization and changing religions, the cultural reasons to continue preservation are often lost[24][25]. Ecotourism can provide locals with jobs and can incentivize locals to continue preservation[26][25]. As there are often very few official regulations around the conservation of sacred groves[25], ecotourism can encourage better stewardship and preservation of the groves by locals[25][26]. Ecotourism also provides resources which local communities can use to continue to fund sacred grove conservation; as many conservation regulators don't have the resources to enforce conservation in sacred groves[25]. Some tourists are also attracted by biodiversity, which can be an incentive for locals to better promote biodiversity[25][27].

Cultural

While the historical cultures associated with sacred groves may not be consistent with current beliefs and culture[24], ecotourism can incentivize some preservation of historic cultures and beliefs, as many tourists are attracted to the story associated with the groves[27]. this can help to preserve the history of the groves and of the local area.

Economic

Tourism can bring a lot money into the communities around sacred groves, which helps to grow local economies and provides employment to locals. This can help locals escape poverty and raise the standard of living for communities around the sacred groves[25][26]. Infrastructure is also often improved to allow more tourists to access the sacred groves[26], which can also be useful for local people.

Human Rights

Tourists often hold more progressive values which can influence the local population[26]. Notably, in some areas women are able to find employment because of tourism[26]. This can help improve women's rights in these areas, and can also allow families to educate their children[26].

Biocultural Conservation

Despite the ecological benefits of sacred groves, very few are officially recognized as Protected Areas or Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures by the IUCN.[28][29] While protected areas are one of the most widespread global conservation strategies, there are known shortcomings to the current system.

Protected areas are selective about the habitats they protect, and they tend to favour mountainous regions with low population density, leaving fertile agricultural valleys with higher human density unprotected.[30] Sacred groves are able to fill in these gaps, forming a large "shadow" network of conservation sites across the humanized landscape.[12] As agriculture progressed, these groves were often designated as sacred when land was cleared for farming, resulting in pockets of ancient vegetation within developed regions. These historical forest patches are uniquely positioned amidst human development, safeguarding biodiversity in ways that traditional protected areas may not.[30]

A significant portion of protected areas are strictly off-limits to any human use of resources.[28] This presents major challenges in developing countries where much of the rural population is still dependent on wild resources for food, fodder, and fuel. Local populations are often barred from accessing these resources, which can force them to encroach on protected areas to meet their land-use needs. This not only undermines the effectiveness of protected area management but can also lead to the displacement of rural or indigenous communities from their land.[30][31]

As the conservation movement calls for a global increase in protected area coverage,[32] care needs to be taken to protect valuable biocultural diversity. Sacred groves may be gazetted as official protected areas, although conflicting management priorities may compromise the conservation or cultural value of sacred sites.[12] Effective governance may come from embracing traditional spiritual and cultural practices alongside community land-use needs.[30][33]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Dutta, T.; Anand, U.; Prockow, J.; Dey, A. (2021). "Advancing urban ethnopharmacology: A modern concept of sustainability, conservation and cross-cultural adaptations of medicinal plant lore in the urban environment". Conservation Physiology. 9(1): 1–20.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Parthasarathy, N; Babu, K (2020). "Sacred Groves: Potential for biodiversity and bioresource management". Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals: 865–880.
  3. ↑ Ndidzulafhi, Innocent Sinthumule (20240204). "Sacred forests as repositories of local biodiversity in Africa: A systematic review". Taylor&Francis. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ↑ Mustaq, Ahmed (20230502). "Nucleus model of sacred groves (sacred groves: the nuclei of biodiversity cells) traditional beliefs, myths, associated anthropogenic threats and possible measures of conservation in Western most regions of lesser Himalayas, India". Sciencedirect. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ↑ Mushtaq, Ahmed (20230502). "Nucleus model of sacred groves (sacred groves: the nuclei of biodiversity cells) traditional beliefs, myths, associated anthropogenic threats and possible measures of conservation in Western most regions of lesser Himalayas, India". Sciencedirect. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ↑ Bhagwat, Shonil (2006). "Sacred groves: potential for biodiversity management". Open Road University. Retrieved December 08 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 De, M. (2017). "Ecosystem Services From Sacred Groves: an Overview" (PDF). Harvest-Online Journal. Spl. Environmental Issue. 1: 14–20.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Ray, R.; Chandran; Ramachandra, T. (2015). "Hydrological importance of sacred forest fragments in Central Western Ghats of India". Tropical Ecology. 56(1).
  9. ↑ "Earth Navigator". One Earth.
  10. ↑ Myers, N.; et al. (2000). "Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities" (PDF). Nature. 403(6772): 853–858. Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Ray, R.; Chandran; Ramachandra (2014). "Biodiversity and ecological assessments of Indian sacred groves". Journal of Forestry Research. 25(1): 21−28.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 DUDLEY, N; HIGGINS-ZOGIB, L; MANSOURIAN, S (2009). "The Links between Protected Areas, Faiths, and Sacred Natural Sites". Conservation Biology. 23(3): 568–577.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Bhagwat, S.; Kushalappa, C.; Williams, P.; Brown, N. (2005). "A Landscape Approach to Biodiversity Conservation of Sacred Groves in the Western Ghats of India". Conservation Biology. 19(6): 1853–1862.
  14. ↑ Rawat, L. (2014). "Role of sacred groves in ameliorating microclimate: A case study of Nagdev temple forest of Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Himalaya, India". International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation. 6(1): 50–58.
  15. ↑ Jana, P.; Dasgupta, S.; Todaria, N. P. (2017). "Impact and ecosystem service of forest and sacred grove as saviour of water quantity and quality in Garhwal Himalaya, India". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 189. 477. Invalid |last-author-amp=& (help)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Jana, P.; Wotsa, K.; Dasgupta, S.; Todaria, N. P. (2018). "Surface water quality in sacred groves of Garhwal Himalayan region, India" (PDF). Current Science. 114(5): 1105–1110.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Sarkar, K.; Barman, T.; Choudhuri, C.; et al. (2024). "Carbon storage in sacred groves of Uttar Dinajpur: implications for climate change mitigation and conservation strategies". Environment, Development and Sustainability. Explicit use of et al. in: |last4= (help)
  18. ↑ Waikhom, A. C.; Nath, A. J.; Yadava, P. S. (2017). "Aboveground biomass and carbon stock in the largest sacred grove of Manipur, Northeast India". Journal of Forestry Research. 29(2): 425–428.
  19. ↑ Bhagwat, S.; et al. (2005). "The Role of Informal Protected Areas in Maintaining Biodiversity in the Western Ghats of India". Ecology and Society. 10(1): 8.
  20. ↑ Khumbongmayum; Khan (2005). "Ethnomedicinal plants in the sacred groves of Manipur" (PDF). Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 4(1): 21–32.
  21. ↑ De Lacy, P.; Shackleton, C. (2017). "Aesthetic and Spiritual Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Sacred Sites". Sustainability. 9(9): 1628.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Diawuo; Issifu (2015). "Exploring the African traditional belief systems in natural resource conservation and management in Ghana" (PDF). The Journal of Pan-African Studies. 8(9): 115.
  23. ↑ Cardelús, C.; Scull, P.; Hair, J.; Baimas-George, M.; Lowman, M.; Eshete, A. (2013). "A preliminary assessment of Ethiopian Sacred Grove status at the landscape and ecosystem scales". Diversity. 5(2): 320–334.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Onyekwelu, JC; Olusola, JA (July 2012). "ROLE OF SACRED GROVE IN IN-SITU BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN RAINFOREST ZONE OF SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA" (PDF). Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 26: 5–15. line feed character in |title= at position 45 (help)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 Takahashi, Yasuo; Veríssimo, Diogo; MacMillan, Douglas C.; Godbole, Archana (31 Jul 2012). "Stakeholder Perceptions of Potential Flagship Species for the Sacred Groves of the North Western Ghats, India". Human Dimensions of Wildlife. 17: 257–269. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10871209.2012.675622 Check |doi= value (help).
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 Patel, Hetal M.; Adhvaryu, Meghna (November, 2021). "Ecotourism Can Promote Sustainable Development in Sacred Grove of Parnera Hills". Eco. Env. & Cons. 28: 362–369. doi:http://doi.org/10.53550/EEC.2022.v28i03s.052 Check |doi= value (help). Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Lameed, A. A; Adesunloye, D. T; Shitu, D. S; Olaniyan, B. D (February 2024). "Evaluating the influence of ecotourism attributes of Osun Osogbo sacred grove on tourists' motivations for visiting". World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews. 21 (2): 674–682. doi:10.30574/wjarr.2024.21.2.0304.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Protected Planet (2024). "Explore protected areas and OECMs".
  29. ↑ Murugesan, A. (2016). "Sacred Groves of India – An Overview". International Journal of Current Research in Biosciences and Plant Biology. 3(4): 64–71.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 Bhagwat, S.; Rutte, C. (2006). "Sacred groves: Potential for biodiversity management". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 4(10): 519–524.
  31. ↑ Dowie, M. (2009). Conservation refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples. The MIT Press eBooks.
  32. ↑ "World met target for protected area coverage on land, but quality must improve". IUCN: Press Release. 19 May, 2021. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  33. ↑ Dawson, N.; et al. (2021). "The role of Indigenous peoples and local communities in effective and equitable conservation". Ecology and Society. 26(3). Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)


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