Course:CONS200/2024WT1/Are bananas going extinct?

From UBC Wiki

Introduction

Bananas are one of the most widely consumed fruits in the world, with major producers including India, China, the Philippines, Ecuador, Brazil and some African countries.[1] They provide essential nutrition and serve as the staple food for millions of people and generate significant economic value with more than $13.5 billion every year.[1][2] Bananas are grown on large herbaceous plants in tropical and subtropical climates, with each plant producing a single bunch of fruit annually.[3][4]

However, this crucial crop is facing a serious threat of extinction due to a fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cubense (FOC).[5] This disease has already devastated the Gros Michel variety and now threatens the Cavendish banana industry, which accounts for 99% of bananas on the global markets.[6] The crisis has intensified by the emergence of Tropical Race 4 (FOC TR4), a harmful strain that is spreading across various countries and triggering severe losses in food secuirity and the global trade.

Background on Banana Extinction Threat

Historical Context: The Gros Michel's Extinction

The Gros Michel banana[7]

The Gros Michel banana, a selectively propagated variety of the wild banana species Musa acuminata, belongs to the triploid AAA group.[8] In the 1950s, it served as the most abundant banana variety for global export due to its low price and nutritional value.[9][5] The cultivar was introduced in the 1800s and widely cultivated during the 1850s.[5] However, its dominance fell due to a fungal disease，Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cubense Race 1 (FOC R1). [5]

By the late 19th century, FOC R1 began to spread in major banana plantation fields, infecting the rhizomes exported globally for cultivation.[5][4] The disease, also known as Fusarium wilt or Panama disease, was challenging to diagnose in its early stages, as symptoms were relative to potassium deficiency, such as yellowing or green leafing.[5] The mislead accelerated the global spread of the pathogen.


Between 1890 and 1910, infected Gros Michel bananas were planted with diseased Caribbean Silk bananas, intensifying the problem.[5] The repetition in planting techniques and inadequate disease management practices led to severe damage, especially in tropical rainforests. For instance, 30,000 hectares of Gros Michel were lost in the Ulua Valley of northwestern Honduras within 20 years after 1940.[4] Similarly, the disease caused long-term closure of the Gros Michel plantations, such as 4,000 hectares in Suriname for eight years and 6,000 hectares in Costa Rica for 12 years.[4]

From the 1890s to the 1950s, the worldwide damage was estimated to be greater than 40,000 hectares of Gros Michel plantations.[5] The economic losses were severe, with the cost of cultivating a hectare of Gros Michel ranging between $2,000 and $5,000.[4] This prompted industries to seek alternatives to combat the Fusarium wilt. By the late 1950s, the Gros Michel variety was considered functionally extinct in commercial agriculture.[9]

The Rise of Cavendish Banana

As the Gros Michel was devastated by the Fusarium wilt, the Cavendish (AAA) cultivar emerged as a replacement. Unlike the Gros Michel, the Cavendish was selectively bred for resistance to the FOC R1.[5] It quickly became the dominant export banana and currently accounts for 99% of bananas in the global market.[2] The Cavendish variety became the dominant banana due to its genetic resistance to FOC R1, which made it adaptable to commercial farming practices and able to meet market demands.

Canvendish's Challenges

Fusarium wilt on bananas[10]

The Cavendish banana, which replaced the Gros Michel as the dominant global banana variety, now faces the threat of extinction due to a new strain of Fusarium wilt: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cubense Tropical Race 4 (FOC TR4).[9] This pathogen severly threatens the global banana production, spreading rapidly and causing widespread damage.

Asia: The Center of FOC TR4

The first discovery of FOC TR4 occurred in Taiwan in 1967,[11] only 17 years after the Gros Michel's massive extinction. The pathogen spread rapidly, with a diseased rhizome infecting 5,536 plants within three years.[11] By 1976, the outbreak had affected 500,000 plants, covering 1,200 hectares.[11] The Cavendish banana production in Taiwan, the Philippines and the Canary Islands soon exhibited similar symptoms of FOC TR4,[11] highlighting the pathogen's ability to spread across various regions and climates.

The disease's impact extended beyond Taiwan. In Malaysia, experimental planting revealed the severity of the threat. Diseased Cavendish bananas were planted on 349 hectares of land that was previously unaffected by Fusarium wilt.[11] Within six months, FOC TR4 was detected,[11] revealing its resilience and ability to thrive in new environments. The diverse types of bananas planted together made losses more severe, especially in markets like Indonesia, which sell multiple types that are susceptible to the TR4.[4] Meanwhile, the co-planting technique of multiple banana varieties, all susceptible to FOC TR4, made losses more severe.[2] The issue arises from

Various bananas sold in markets[12]

poor agricultural practices, where above-ground tissues are harvested while leaving the root tissues in the soil.[4] This allows pathogens that reside in the roots to spread to new plants, increasing the risk of disease.[2]

The FOC TR4 was later restricted to Eastern and Southern Asia for more than 20 years, but the Panama wilt continued to expand in countries of Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, India, and Pakistan.[2] The poor soil management and the practice of leaving infected root tissues in the soil further facilitated the spread of the disease,[4] allowing the disease to travel across these countries.

Australia's Recognition

Australia's experience with FOC TR4 began in the late 1990s. Although symptoms appeared in southern Queensland's Cavendish cultivars before 1976, the disease was not taken seriously until it caused significant damage to banana plantations in the Northern Territory between 1997 to 1999.[11] The outbreak highlighted the pathogen's ability to spread to nearby facilities, underscoring the importance of necessary quarantine measures.

The Middle East and Africa

In the 2010s, the FOC TR4 expanded its geographical range, moving westward from Asia to several countries, including Oman, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel and Mozambique.[2] The emergence of this disease in these regions emphasizes its global prevalence and the significant challenges associated with preventing its further spread. Ineffective preventive measures and the vulnerability of the Cavendish bananas have increased the risk for these regions, making them susceptible to the disease's impacts.

Modern Threats

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that global banana production in 2022 reached 135.11 million tonnes.[13] Despite banana’s impressive output, the Fusarium wilt continues to destroy 950,000 tonnes of banana crops annually.[5] To offset these losses, new inputs of unwilted land are used for banana plantations to meet the global demand.[11] However, until a new variety that shows resistance to FOC TR4 fungus is developed, the future of banana production remains threatened.

Fusarium Wilt/ Panama Disease

Introduction

Fusarium wilt of banana is also known as the Panama disease.[14] Tomato and other solanaceous crops, sweet potato, legumes, cucurbits and banana are themost susceptible plants, though it will also infect other herbaceous plants as well as cotton, ornamentals and palms.[15] Cultures of Fusarium species grown on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar at 25oC, producing Xwoolly, cottony, flat or spreading colonies.[16] Colony colour from the top is white, cream, tan, salmon, cinnamon, yellow, red, violet, pink, or purple.[17] On the underside, the colour may be tan, red, dark purple, brown, or may also be colourless.[17] During unfavourable conditions, the fungus produces sclerotia (singular = sclerotium). A sclerotium is the organised mass of hyphae that remains dormant during unfavourable conditions[18] and germinates later when favourable conditions return and become a source of infection. Fusarium species typically produce both macroconidia and microconidia from slender phialides.[17] Macroconidia are hyaline, two- to several-celled, fusiform- to sickle-shaped, mostly with an elongated apical cell and pedicellate basal cell. Microconidia are 1- to 2-celled, hyaline, pyriform, fusiform to ovoid, straight or curved.[19]

Panama wilt blackening banana plant[20]

As a historically important disease of bananas worldwide and is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (FOC), Fusarium wilt epidemics in the twentieth century resulted in the devastation of more than 50,000 hectares of exotic Gros Michel (AAA) plantations[21] leading to a major shift of the entire banana production to resistant Cavendish (AAA) banana varieties such as Williams, Grand Naine and Dwarf Cavendish.[22]

Cavendish varieties display strong resistance to most Fusarium accessions, however, recent findings suggest that these varieties too are now being affected by newly evolved virulent strains of Foc (tropical and subtropical race 4).[22]

Foc is a soil inhabiting filamentous fungus belonging to the Ascomycetes class[23] and grouped under the section Elegans.[24] FOC is categorized into four different races based on the pathogenicity to different banana cultivars. Race 1 infects Gros Michel, Silk and Pome varieties and Race 2 causes disease in cooking banana cultivars such as Bluggoe.[25] Race 4 is the most recently evolved and most virulent strain infecting the Cavendish types as well as both race 1 and race 2 susceptible cultivars.[25] Race 3 is not a pathogen of banana as it only infects Heliconia spp.[25] However, Race 1 belonging to vegetative compatibility group (VCG) 0124 has also been found to infect unstressed resistant Cavendish under suboptimal growing conditions.[26]

Symptoms

Banana Leaf blackening due to Fusarium Wilt[27]

The symptoms of Fusarium wilt disease of banana are analogous to any other Fusarium wilt, showing typical yellowing and wilting of plants.[22] The fungus gains entry into the plant system through the roots by overcoming the plant defense machinery.[22] Chlamydospores present in the soil get attached to the root caps and further germinate to colonize the root surface of the host plant.[22] Foc invades the epidermal cells of the small lateral roots by directly penetrating the cell wall or through the wound or injury sites in the roots.[22] As Foc disrupts the plant’s water conducting vessels, leaves become yellow (progressing from older to younger leaves).[19] Some of the leaves may then collapse at the leaf stalk and hang down at the pseudostem from the oldest to the youngest, and dry up.[19] Distinctive symptoms appear inside the pseudostem; numerous brown, red or yellow lines running in all directions are visible in vertical section (appear as rings in cross-section).[19] These are the infected water conducting vessels.[19] Smaller brown streaks or flecks appear in the corm, at ground level.[19] Later, all leaves turn yellow and die and internal rotting becomes extensive and it emits a strong unfavourable smell.[19] Splits may also appear in the pseudostem.[19] Infected plants usually do not produce fruit. Infected suckers growing out of diseased corms produce plants that wilt and eventually die out. Leaf symptoms appear after the fungus has spread through the corm. In younger plants, the first signs of infestation are to be found on the unfurling leaf which turns yellow and dies off.[19]

Economic Lost

Foc is recognized as the most important pathogen of banana crop worldwide, causing economically significant yield losses.[22] Banana is a significant fruit crop in the Philippines, contributing 5.06% to gross output in agriculture.[28] On the average, annual production from 2002 to 2011 was 7,281,911 mt in 428,837 ha.[28] Production in 2011 reached 9,165,046 mt valued at PhP102,557 million or US$2,368 million. About 51% (4,685,997 metric tons) of this volume was of Cavendish variety.[28] The total cost of disease among the 30 sample farms with a total area of 712 hectares reached PhP16,329,767 or US$386,686.[28] One of the farms found it unprofitable to produce that it had already started shifting to corn and sorghum by planting these crops in affected areas.[28] Annual economic losses from Foc TR4 have been estimated at USD 121 million in Indonesia, USD 253 million in Taiwan, and USD 14 million in Malaysia.[29]

Current Efforts

Genetic Modification

New research suggests that targeting specific genes in TR4, the fungus that causes banana blight, could provide new methods of control.[30] The researchers isolated genes associated with the production of nitric oxide, a key factor in the fungus' ability to infect Cavendish bananas.[30] By disabling these genes, the virulence of the fungus could be significantly reduced. [30] However, developing improved varieties of bananas using conventional breeding is challenging due to the low genetic variability of banana germplasm, polyploidy, long production cycles, and sterility of most varieties commonly grown by farmers.[31] Genetic engineering is a very effective tool for transferring useful traits from different species or between the same species, bypassing the natural bottlenecks in breeding and thus making it applicable to banana improvement. [31]

Genetic modification of bananas is very challenging due to the complexity of banana biology and the technical difficulties involved. Unlike many crops, bananas are mostly sterile and reproduce by cloning, which means that researchers cannot rely on seeds to grow transgenic plants. Instead, scientists must use tissue culture techniques to regenerate intact plants from modified cells, a highly complex and labour-intensive process.[32]

CRISPR/Cas9 technology is widely recognized and acclaimed for its precision but faces specific obstacles with bananas (20).[33][34] A major challenge is regenerating intact plants after the successful introduction of genetic material. Banana cells typically have a low success rate of transformation, and inducing them to differentiate and grow into mature plants is difficult due to the complexity of their genome.[35] Also, bananas exhibit variety-specific responses, which means that a program applicable to one variety may not be effective for another. The lack of universal methods increases the difficulty and time required to successfully improve bananas.[32][35]

Bananas are a major food crop in many tropical and subtropical regions, and their genetic uniformity makes them highly susceptible to pests and diseases, especially Fusarium wilt, also known as Panama disease.[36] This fungal infection seriously affects banana production, a situation that represents an urgent need for genetic modification to improve the resistance of banana plants to diseases such as wilt and to ensure the sustainability and resilience of banana cultivation.[36]

Methods For Gene Delivery

As mentioned earlier, the genetic modification of bananas is a challenging task due to its complexity and the technological hurdles involved. Two main approaches have been used to deliver CRISPR/Cas9 and other gene constructs into bananas: agrobacterium-mediated transformation and particle bombardment.[33][34][37] Although these techniques have been applied to a variety of banana and plantain species, they still face major challenges.[33][34][37] One of the main difficulties is the low success rate of transformed banana cells, which complicates the regeneration of intact plants from modified cells. Also, because banana varieties exhibit specific responses to transformation, methods that work for one variety may not be applicable to others.[33][34][37] The lack of universal methods increases the complexity of successful genetic modification and extends the time required for success, making the process both difficult and resource-intensive. Despite these challenges, these methods remain the most commonly used for delivering CRISPR/Cas9 reagents to banana cells.[33][34][37]

Importance of Embryogenic Cells

Successful banana transformation relies on embryogenic cells, which come from specific tissues like leaf sheaths or shoot tips.[38][39] However, these cells are difficult to produce and vary by cultivar, requiring significant effort to generate.[38][39]

Transformation Platform by IITA-KenyaIITA

IITA-Kenya has developed a platform using Agrobacterium methods to modify bananas, especially varieties like Gonja Manjaya and Gros Michel.[39][40][41] This platform is widely used, with Agrobacterium-mediated transformation being the most common way to introduce CRISPR/Cas9 into banana cells.[39][40][41]

Cultivating More Varieties

Diversity of banana breeds is one proposed solution beyond disarming the harmful fungus[42][43]

Today, Cavendish bananas are replacing Gros Michel bananas due to their genetic homogeneity, but this genetic homogeneity makes them highly susceptible to pathogens, particularly the TR4 strain of Fusarium wilt.[43] Although increasing the diversity of banana varieties can improve disease resistance, it is important to address the fact that in some areas, growing different varieties of bananas together can lead to more severe losses, largely due to poor agricultural practices such as leaving infected root tissue in the soil after harvesting above-ground plant parts.[11][13] Even different banana varieties that are sensitive to TR4 can facilitate the spread of the disease. However, from a broader perspective, scientists have emphasized that the overall diversity of banana varieties through breeding and promotion is a key strategy to combat pathogens such as TR4.[43] Since the pathogen is unlikely to affect all banana varieties equally, the spread of the disease is slowed, which reduces the risk of a single pathogen wiping out the entire crop and ensures the resilience of the banana industry in the face of future disease outbreaks. Thus, while planting different banana varieties in the same area may exacerbate losses under poor management, increasing diversity on a larger scale remains critical to improving disease resistance and protecting the global banana crop.[11][13][43]

Looking Forward: the danger of monocultures

Technical solutions

The cavendish variety of bananas is currently the most common variety on the market. However, they lack genetic biodiversity since they reproduce asexually via "cloning"; [44] thus making them all vulnerable the same issues. Currently there are “no genetically modified (GM) bananas and plantains have yet been released for commercial purposes”.[44] However, using tools like CRISPR/Cas9 can help scientists modify banana genes, or alternatively target the Fusarium fungus to ultimately make bananas more resistant to disease. For example, how altering the fungus may make it less infectious and thus, less of a threat to the variety.[39] However, this is not advantageous unless we find a way to replace the current threat otherwise this "solution" would would be counterproductive since it would be adding a different strain to the issue. Methods like genetic engineering or selective breeding are routes that are currently being tested; However, most solutions like this can take long and are mostly based on trial and error. This is due to insufficient technology in genetic modification.[44]

Socio-economic effects

Consumers play a big role in protecting bananas.[45] Learning about the risks of relying solely on Cavendish bananas and trying alternative varieties can support the industry’s diversity. Unfortunately, there is still much mistrust with trying genetically modified variants or sustainable alternatives.[45] This further exacerbates the danger of a monoculture farming.[39]

A solution to this could be to slowly try to introduce more varieties and genetic crosses to the market. This would be in an effort to introduce new varieties to sellers and consumers.[45] To tackle the economic risks tied to banana monoculture, Investing in the development of disease-resistant or genetically modified banana varieties can help reduce dependence on fungicides and prevent large-scale crop losses, lowering production costs over time. Additionally, gaining public support for these new varieties is crucial. This might revolve around educating consumers about the importance of diversifying banana crops and addressing concerns about taste and appearance differences compared to the familiar Cavendish.

Education

Training Course on Mutation Breeding and Efficiency Enhancing Techniques for Resistance to Fusarium Wilt in Latin America Laboratories.[46]

a study of banana cultivars in somalia: one of the largest global banana producers, reveals that almost 48.5% of the banana farm workers have a low level of knowledge of banana cultivation.[47] This refers specifically to Farmworkers' deep understanding of various knowledge aspects such as planting techniques, irrigation, fertilization, pest, and disease management, and harvesting practices can contribute to effective farm management with outstanding production and it might ensure optimal plant growth and yield.[48] The lack of knowledge can be attributed to barriers like language, infrastructure, technology, gender inequality, and general availability.[48]

This further illustrates the need for the the better education regarding the cultivation of not only bananas, but crops as a whole.

Conclusion

Throughout history,  the understanding of banana extinction has been tied to agricultural practices and soil management.  Even though the fungi: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cubense is tied to the problematic disease in banana production, humans were able to combat it through genetic modification and selective breeding.

However, to maintain the long run of the banana population, growing a variety of banana types and using sustainable farming methods are required to protect the banana industry from infection risks associated with current practices. This will lower vulnerability and by combining different banana types with eco-friendly practices, we can strengthen the industry against future challenges. Support from consumers, efforts from farmers, and smart farming choices will help the banana industry stay strong and healthy for years to come.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Liu, Pascal (2019). "Bananas". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 7 December 2024.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Barquero, Marcia; Dita, Miguel; Heck, Daniel; Mizubuti, Eduardo S. G.; Staver, Charles P. (2018-10-19). "Fusarium Wilt of Banana: Current Knowledge on Epidemiology and Research Needs Toward Sustainable Disease Management". Frontiers in Plant Science. p. 1468. Retrieved 2024-10-31.
  3. ↑ FAO (1977). "Bananas". FAO Economic and Social Development Series. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: 3–18.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Ploetz, Randy C. (2000-12-4). "Panama Disease: A Classic and Destructive Disease of Banana". Plant Health Progress. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1094/PHP-2000-1204-01-HM. Retrieved 2024-10-30. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Waraczewski, Robert; Solowiej, Bartosz G. (29-October-2022). "May bananas go extinct? The epidemic of Panama disease. A review". Agronomy Science. 77: 139–148 – via Crossref. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ↑ Genome British Columbia. "Cloning". Genome British Columbia. Retrieved 7 December 2024.
  7. ↑ Firzafp (1 April 2023). "File:Pisang Ambon (Gros Michel) at a fruit shop in Simpang III Sipin - Jambi City, JA.jpg". UBC Wiki. Retrieved 7 December 2024.
  8. ↑ Vezina, Anne (23 July 2020). "Gros Michel". ProMusa. Retrieved 6 December 2024.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "Scientists may have found a way to save banana from extinction". CE Noticias Financieras. Massachusetts: ContentEngine LLC. 2024. p. 438.
  10. ↑ Plant pests and diseases (23 July 2004). "File:AKK 8-009 -3 Panama Dis P Lahi 013 (2).jpg". UBC Wiki. Retrieved 7 December 2024.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 Hwang, Shin-Chuan; Ko, Wen-Hsuing (2004-06). "Cavendish Banana Cultivars Resistant to Fusarium Wilt Acquired through Somaclonal Variation in Taiwan". Plant Disease. 88 (6): 580–588 – via APS Online Publications. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ↑ Jones, Adam (23 July 2009). "Bananas for sale at market in Trivandrum (Thiruvananthapuram), Kerala, India. August 2008". UBC Wiki.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "FAOSTAT". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2024-11-03.
  14. ↑ Ploetz, R. C. (1990). "Variability in Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense". Canadian Journal of Botany. 68.
  15. ↑ Miller, S.A., Rowe, R.C. and Riedel, R.M. (2011). Fusarium and Verticillium wilts of tomato, potato, pepper, and eggplant. Fact Sheet. Columbus, Ohio State University.
  16. ↑ Larone, D. H. (1995). Medically Important Fungi - A Guide to Identification, 3rd ed. Washington, D.C: ASM Press.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Nelson, P.E., Dignani M.C. and Anaisse E.J. (1994).Taxonomy, biology, and clinical aspects of Fusarium species. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 7(4): 479-504.
  18. ↑ Mui-Yun, W. (2003). Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Sacc.): PP728 Soil-borne Plant Pathogen Class Project. North Carolina State University.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 Okungbowa, F. I.; Shittu, H. O. (2012). "FUSARIUM WILTS: AN OVERVIEW". Environmental Research Journal. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 6. ISSN 1935-3049.
  20. ↑ Nelson, Scot (21 January 2014). "Panama wilt of banana(left).jpg". Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 6 December 2024 – via Flickr.
  21. ↑ Ploetz, R.C.; Pegg, K. (2000). "Fusarium wilt in diseases of banana, Abaca and Enset". Wallingford: CABI Publishing.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 Ghag, Siddhesh B.; Shekhawat, Upendra K.S.; Ganapathi, Thumballi R. (2015). "Fusarium wilt of banana: biology, epidemiology and management". International Journal of Pest Management. 61 (3): 250–263.
  23. ↑ Leslie, John F; Summerell, Brett A (2006). The fusarium laboratory manual. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 9780813819198.
  24. ↑ Groenewald, Susan; Van Den Berg, Noëlani; Marasas, Walter F.O.; Viljoen, Altus (2006). "The application of high-throughput AFLP's in assessing genetic diversity in Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense". Mycological Research. 110 (3): 297–305.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Ploetz, Randy C. (2006). "Fusarium Wilt of Banana Is Caused by Several Pathogens Referred to as Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense". Phytopathology®. 96 (6): 653–656.
  26. ↑ Thangavelu, R.; Mustaffa, M. M. (2010). "First Report on the Occurrence of a Virulent Strain of Fusarium Wilt Pathogen (Race-1) Infecting Cavendish (AAA) Group of Bananas in India". Plant Disease. 94 (11): 1379–1379.
  27. ↑ Plant pests and diseases (29 August 2015). "Black Sigatoka Read: www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/PD-50.pdf". UBC Wiki.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 Aquino, A., Bandoles, G., Lim, V. A., Abeleda, C., & Molina, A. (2013, November). Economic Impact of Fusarium Wilt Disease on Cavendish Banana Farms in Southern Philippines. In Consultation-Workshop on the Socio-Economic Impacts of Fusarium Wilt Disease of Cavendish Banana in the Asia-Pacific Region (pp. 11-15).
  29. ↑ ANIMUS. (2020). Prevention and management of Fusarium wilt. Fontagro.org. https://www.fontagro.org/new/proyectos/fusariummusaceas/en
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Zhang, Y; Liu, S; Mostert, D (2024). "Virulence of banana wilt-causing fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum tropical race 4 is mediated by nitric oxide biosynthesis and accessory genes". Nat Microbiol. 9: 2232–2243. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-024-01779-7 Check |doi= value (help) – via Nature Microbiology.CS1 maint: display-authors (link)
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Junior, M.T; Alves, E.J; Raimundo, J; Silveria, S.F; Lima, M.B; Mandioca, E (2001-12-31). "Banana breeding program at Embrapa". Crop Breeding and Applied Biotechnology. 1: 399–436 – via Semantic Scholar.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Tripathi, Leena; Tripathi, Jaindra; Oduor, Richard (2015-11-25). [doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2015.01025 "A High-Throughput Regeneration and Transformation Platform for Production of Genetically Modified Banana"] Check |url= value (help). Plant Biotechnology. 6 – via Frontiers.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Tripathi, Leena; Mwaka, Henry; Tripathi, Jaindra Nath (2010-06-30). "Expression of sweet pepper Hrap gene in banana enhances resistance to Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum". Molecular Plant Pathology. 11 (6): 721–731 – via BSPP Journal.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Khanna, Harjeet; Becker, Doug; Dale, James (2004-02-17). "Centrifugation Assisted Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated Transformation (CAAT) of embryogenic cell suspensions of banana (Musa spp. Cavendish AAA and Lady finger AAB)". Molecular Breeding. 14: 239–252 – via Springer Nature Link.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Altpeter, Fredy; Springer, Nathan; Laura, Bartley (2016-07). "Advancing Crop Transformation in the Era of Genome Editing". The Plant Cell. 28 (7): 1510–1520 – via Oxford Academic. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Ploetz, Randy (2007-02-16) [2006-06]. "Fusarium Wilt of Banana Is Caused by Several Pathogens Referred to as Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense". Phytopathology®. 96 (6): 653–656. eISSN 1943-7684. ISSN 0031-949X – via APS.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Ganapathi, T. R.; Higgs, N. S.; Balint-Kurti, P. J. (2001-02). "Agrobacterium -mediated transformation of embryogenic cell suspensions of the banana cultivar Rasthali (AAB)". Plant Cell Reports. 20: 157–162 – via Springer Nature Link. hair space character in |title= at position 14 (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Becker, D.K; Dugdale, B; Smith, M.K; et al. (2000). "Genetic transformation of Cavendish banana ( Musa spp. AAA group) cv "Grand Nain" via microprojectile bombardment". Plant Cell Report. 19: 229–234 – via Springer Nature Link.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 Tripathi, N. Jaindra; Oduor, Richard.O; Tripathi, Leena (2015-11-25). "A High-Throughput Regeneration and Transformation Platform for Production of Genetically Modified Banana". Plant Biotechnology. 6 – via Frontiers.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Naim, F; Dugdale, B; Kleidon, J; et al. (2018-07-09). "Gene editing the phytoene desaturase alleles of Cavendish banana using CRISPR/Cas9". Transgenic Research. 27: 451–460 – via Springer Nature Link.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Kaur, N; Alok, A; Shivani, N; et al. (2017-11-29). "CRISPR/Cas9-mediated efficient editing in phytoene desaturase (PDS) demonstrates precise manipulation in banana cv. Rasthali genome". Functional & Integrative Genomics. 18: 89–99 – via Springer Nature Link.
  42. ↑ Wytrazek, Julia (22 August 2024). "Bananas have been facing extinction. But maybe not for much longer". The Weekend.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 Rao, Devika (2024-08-22). "Bananas have been facing extinction. But maybe not for much longer". The Week.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Tripathi, L; Ntui, V. O.; Tripathi, J. N. (2019). "Application of genetic modification and genome editing for developing climate-smart banana". line feed character in |title= at position 59 (help)
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Sánchez, Miguel A.; Parrott, Wayne A. (2017). "Characterization of scientific studies usually cited as evidence of adverse effects of GM food/feed".
  46. ↑ IAEA Imagebank (24 February 2022). "File:Banana Fusarium Wilt Race TR4 (05410316) (51902962158).jpg". UBC WIKI.
  47. ↑ Ifrah, D. F; Visetnoi, S. (2024). [doi:https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1291/1/012006 "Assessment of Farmworker's level of knowledge in banana cultivation and its implication on productivity improvement in the lower shabelle region of somalia"] Check |url= value (help).
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Collett, K., & Gale, C. (2009). Training for rural development: Agricultural and enterprise skills for women smallholders. City and Guilds Centre for Skills Development, 24-30.


Seekiefer (Pinus halepensis) 9months-fromtop.jpg
 This conservation resource was created by Course:CONS200. It is shared under a CC-BY 4.0 International License.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Course:CONS200/2024WT1/Are_bananas_going_extinct%3F&oldid=853207"