Course:CONS200/2023WT2/ Indigenous-led Conservation in BC: Challenges and Opportunities

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Introduction

Indigenous-led Conservation in action: Fairy Creek protests

Indigenous-led conservation has been occurring for genera, with Indigenous land stewardship accounting for 80% of the world's global biodiversity today.[1] Indigenous-led conservation is defined as “conservation practices that are designed and executed under the management of Indigenous leaders”.[1] Implementation of Indigenous-led conservation initiatives across Canada has presented several challenges stemming from settler colonialism, but despite these barriers there have been many successful cases.[2] Whether past or contemporary, Indigenous-led conservation is a successful mechanism to protecting and achieving biodiversity. With ambitious commitments like 30% by 2030, where Canada has committed to protecting 30% of its land and freshwater by 2030, Indigenous-led conservation is regarded as a key pathway to pursue.[3] Giving consideration to the historical context, reasoning, contemporary initiatives, there are a plethora of challenges and opportunities in Indigenous-led Conservation in British Columbia.

Historical Context

Indigenous Peoples of B.C.

In Canada, "Indigenous" is an umbrella term to refer to First Nations, Métis and Inuit groups individually and collectively. [4] "Indigenous" can be both a legal and colloquial term, and is often used worldwide to refer to the first inhabitants of an area. [5] Indigenous peoples have lived in what is now known as B.C. for over 10,000 years.[6] In 2016, the population of Indigenous peoples in B.C. was 270,585, which is 5.9% of the total population.[7] Of the Indigenous population in B.C., approximately 63.8% (172,520) are First Nations, 33.0% (89,405) are Métis, and 0.6% (1,615) are Inuit.[7] Many others report having more than one Indigenous identity or other identities.[7] In 2016, 72% (125,635) of First Nations peoples had Registered or Treaty Indian status, which is the legal identity of an Indigenous person in Canada under the Indian Act first passed in 1876.[7][8] The Indian Act contains certain benefits, rights, and services for registered persons; such as education, some tax exemptions, and health services.[9] Historically the Indian Act has not recognized Métis and Inuit peoples, and many First Nations peoples are not eligible or registered.[9] Those without status remain legally unrecognized by the Canadian government and face challenges such as being unable to participate in band politics, facing barriers to their communities, and unable to experience the rights and supports offered to registered people.[9] Canada's history of colonialism has created many systematic barriers for Indigenous peoples.

Colonial Settler Implications on Indigenous Peoples and Cultural Practices

For Indigenous peoples in Canada, the arrival of European colonizers on the Northwest Coast disrupted both the natural environment and interconnectedness with nature and culture.[10] The industrial expansion and exploitation of traditional lands and resources had many negative impacts on culturally significant areas through large-scale fishing, logging, and mining.[10] There are many case examples of these negative impacts that are recalled by Indigenous Elders. For example, the fur trade, which began in the late 1700s and continued into the 1900s, lead to a loss of wildlife (fur seal sea otter, beaver etc.) and loss of coastal kelp beds.[11]

Colonial Settlement Activity: People at logging camp in Port Moody, British Columbia, 1886

European colonization and the suppression of Indigenous peoples had negative effects for the long-term ecological integrity of land and waters formerly under Indigenous stewardship.[10] Long-standing traditions of Indigenous resource use and management were closely tied to the functioning of many ecosystems, and these complex and subtle knowledge systems were overlooked in the competition for land.[10] Some of these management practices included the use of fire, weeding, pruning, selective harvesting, replanting of bulbs/root fragments, and sometimes transplanting from one area to another. [10] Additionally, the introduction of legislation, such as the Bush Fire Act of 1874, which banned cultural burning in B.C contributed to impacts on landscapes and the loss of traditional knowledge.[12]

Reasoning Behind Indigenous-Led Conservation

In the face of the global ecological and climate crisis, the Canadian government is proposing initiatives and policy targets that focus on environmental protection, such as the 30% land and freshwater protection by 2030 project.[3] In combination to this, actions to advance reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples have bolstered support for the implementation of Indigenous-led conservation to help meet such ambitious targets.[3] Indigenous-led conservation is an effective conservation mechanism based on traditional ecological knowledge. It utilizes an interconnectedness of efforts and emphasizes a mutualistic relationship between nature and humans. Colonization has moved conservation in the wrong direction by overriding and removing Indigenous peoples from their lands and knowledge, consequently, moving conservation away from Indigenous-led efforts.[13] Currently, there has been a progressive movement towards reinstating Indigenous-led conservation efforts.[13] Initiatives such as the Klinse-Ze Mountain Caribou, Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs, and Fairy Creek blockade are all examples of contemporary conservation initiatives. These examples display the power in Indigenous-led conservation and the challenges that come along with them.

Contemporary Conservation Initiatives

Indigenous-led conservation is a catalyst for promoting and retaining biodiversity in BC. Contemporary Indigenous-led initiatives across the province help to identify key challenges and implications, while providing frameworks that further understanding and future opportunities. The following are a few significant and current Indigenous-led conservation initiatives:

Map of protected area for the Klinse-Za mountain caribou.

Klinse-Za Mountain Caribou

An example of a successful Indigenous-led conservation effort is the case of the Klinse-Za Mountain Caribou. Caribou populations throughout Canada are declining.[14] They are considered extremely endangered, with many subpopulations between 2000 and 2017 facing extirpation.[15] Caribou are a cultural keystone species for many Indigenous peoples, who rely on caribou for ceremonial and substantial purposes.[15] To combat this decline within their traditional territory, the West Moberly First Nations and Saulteau First Nations came together to recover the local subpopulation, the Klinse-Za Mountain Caribou.

Caribou rely on old-growth forests for their habitat, habitat which the extraction of natural resources has negatively altered.[15] This human-induced disturbance allows predators of caribou to thrive, with increased predation drastically declining caribou populations.[15] In response to this active decline, starting in 2013, the Nations started implementing both short-term and long-term conservation efforts. Immediately, the Nations used wolf reduction and maternal penning to revive the subpopulation of the Klinse-Za mountain caribou.[15] Caribou Guardians were assigned to the caribou, who protected and stewarded the caribou to reduce calf mortality.[15] After successfully avoiding short term extirpation, the Nations entered legislative discussions and successfully achieved long-term formal protection of caribou habitat.[15] Due the Nations efforts, the Klinse-Za subpopulation of caribou was able to to recover from approaching extirpation and the population has more than doubled since 2013.[15]

Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs: Grizzly Bears, Fungi, and Watersheds.

One sign of change is the Gitanyow Lax’yip Land Use Plan. Previously known as the Kitwancool, the Gitanyow band of British Columbia were among the first First Nations groups to submit a comprehensive land claim with the provincial government of British Columbia.[16]   

Part of the Canadian government's attempt to reconcile its relationship with the indigenous peoples’ of this land, this plan grants the rights of the land, located in northern British Columbia and covering 3 administrative boundaries and 3 timber supply areas, to the Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs.[4] This historic deal was negotiated over a ten year period, and was renewed in 2016 as well as most recently in 2021.[4] Through this, the Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs are able to enshrine their ecological values which include ecosystem networks and buffers, cultural sights, grizzly bear habitats, and water management into their land. [4]

Fairy Creek Police Resistance.

Fairy Creek

Another contemporary Indigenous-led conservation effort is the case of Fairy Creek. Fairy Creek is the heart of a watershed surrounded by 883 hectares of old-growth forest.[17] The Ditidaht, Pacheedaht, and Huu-ay-aht First Nations are all the land stewards of the Fairy Creek watershed region.[18]

In 2020, using satellite imagery a new logging road was spotted through the watershed by the grassroots organization.[19] This discovery sparked the beginning of a blockade on the logging road. Soon a protest was raging against logging of the old-growth trees.[19] It started off small, but the protest quickly received media coverage and grew massively in size. Since the protest started nearly 1200 Fairy Creek protesters have been arrested.[19] The Fairy Creek case is coined “the largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history”.[19]

The protests have been a large source of conflict for the local First Nations. Overall, there is overwhelming support for the protection of the old-growth. However, for some economic reasons and cultural purposes, the protests have been negative for Nations. For example, calling a halt to all old-growth harvesting prevents the First Nations from harvesting for cultural purposes.[18]

Fairy Creek is an ongoing issue and currently the Huu-ay-aht, Pacheedaht, and Ditidaht First Nations have claimed their jurisdiction to steward the old-growth in their traditional, unceded territory.[18] This sovereignty declaration caused the B.C government to declare deferrals on logging.[18] These deferrals allow the Nations to develop new management plans and bans logging until September 2026.[17][19] The future for Fairy Creek is uncertain but without First Nations efforts a chance at conservation would not be possible.

Challenges

As seen in initiatives such as the Klinse-Za Mountain Caribou, Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs, and Fairy Creek blockade, there are challenges and thematic issues present alongside Indigenous conservation mechanisms. Conflicting perceptions of validity in Indigenous-led conservation, resource extraction pressure, sustainable financial support, and systemic legal barriers all pose challenges to Indigenous-led conservation.

Perceptions of Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous knowledge, the system of passed down and shared knowledge within Indigenous communities,[20] is crucial to successful implementation and continuation of Indigenous-led conservation.[2] This knowledge though must operate within the colonial context and laws established by Canada, creating a credibility gap due to differing perceptions of ecological conservation knowledge from Western science.[21] Indigenous knowledge is continually under appreciated, effectively detracting the extent to which it can be utilized as a result of a lack of trust in its validity in the colonial system.[21]

For example, a significant challenge to engagement in Indigenous fire stewardship is the lack of understanding from wildfire management agencies of the relationship and knowledge applications Indigenous people have with fire and controlled burning.[22][23] This highlights an inability of Western conservationists to collaborate and work with Indigenous knowledge holders,[24] creating barriers that result in challenges to Indigenous-led conservation where cultural knowledge is central in conservation action.[22]

Clearcut logging of old-growth forest as seen in the Bugaboo Creek area of the Gordon River near Port Renfrew, BC.

Government Pressure for Resource Extraction

In relation to Indigenous-led conservation initiatives, efforts to increase Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs) are continually undermined and at threat of damage due to British Columbia's resource extraction pressures.[25][2] The history of resource extraction in British Columbia is well established as the three primary sectors of fishing, mining, and forestry greatly contribute to the settler-colonial economy.[2] Consequently, the extraction model exploits Indigenous land for capitalist gain, while alienating Indigenous peoples from their territories.[25]

Aside from impacts on longevity due to resource extraction, upholding of such policies within Canadian law and policy systematically disrupts efforts to increase Indigenous sovereignty and cultural resurgence which are necessary to maintain community action.[2] Indigenous peoples cannot control resource extraction activities that occur around and sometimes within their territory, demonstrated in the case of the Blueberry River First Nation where resource extraction continued despite being in direct violation of Treaty 8.[2] Provincial and federal licensing that enables logging, mining, hydroelectric development and other extractive and disruptive activities destroy parts of Indigenous territory, leaving Indigenous peoples in a constant uprooted state that undermines community conservation initiatives.[2]

Continual Financial Support

Zoning Boundary Plan for Marine Plan Partnership off of the north coast of British Columbia

As the Canadian government looks to support and invest in Indigenous-led conservation in order to address the ecological crisis and create pathways towards reconciliation,[3] it is increasingly important to ensure the sustainable longevity of funding that is supplied to such initiatives. This is of particular importance in Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs), a main target of funding to reach Canada's goal of protecting 30% of its land and freshwater by 2030.[3] The development and establishment of IPCAs is complex, requiring substantial financial resources to support the several phases from consultation, implementation, and monitoring.[2][3]

To this point, as seen with the case of the Marine Plan Partnership of the North Pacific Coast (MaPP), obtaining multi-year funding is extremely difficult despite being essential in Indigenous area-based conservation initiatives. [26] The MaPP of 2011 aimed to bring 18 Nations and the Government of British Columbia together to implement marine plans for 102,000 square kilometres of coastal area in Northern British Columbia.[26] In order to maintain the viability of the project, the MaPP relied on a model that included in-kind human resources (non-monetary forms of compensation) from project partners and received grants.[26] This is a specific funding option unfortunately not attainable for every conservation initiative in British Columbia. As Indigenous-led conservation initiatives do not consistently entail that same resource requirements, funding operates on a case-by-case and electoral basis, furthering the complexity of the matter and signifying the challenges to continue such projects.[2]

Law and Governance under Crown Authority

Commercial Fishing in the Salish Sea: Colonial economic activity without ecological and cultural regard

Indigenous-led conservation operates through Indigenous governance and law which are typically neglected and undervalued when compared with Canadian law.[2] Although Indigenous law predates Canadian law, this system that discounts Indigenous law consequently sets up barriers to Indigenous environmental stewardship and perpetuates a dominating colonial authority.[2] There is a clear clash between the two governments, present in the case of the Kitasoo Xai’xais Nation which highlights the inability for Indigenous communities to enact action under their territories and law without potential repercussions. In Kitasu Bay, on the central coastline of British Columbia, local Indigenous peoples enacted laws designed to protect crucial food sources in their territory, effectively closing cultural use areas to commercial fishing.[27] This occurred despite Fisheries and Oceans Canada declaring them open, representing a conflict stemming from the lack of reconciliation between Indigenous and colonial legal systems. [27] Evidently, this left the Kitasoo Xai’xais Nation vulnerable to outside commercial activity as it is not recognized as a legal protected area by the Government of British Columbia and the Canadian government.[2][27] There is no legal framework in Canada to explicitly recognize protected areas, including IPCAs and Marine Protected Areas that are stewarded and established under Indigenous law.[3] As seen in the Kitasoo Xai’xais Nation as well as Fairy Creek, this leaves Indigenous communities and conservation initiatives severely undermined and in complex situations where having to operate under a colonial government may prevent Indigenous-led conservation. Without proper recognition of land rights, law, and jurisdiction, there is a great risk of the perpetuation of colonialism that will continue to exclude Indigenous peoples from decision-making processes related to conservation actions in British Columbia,[2][3] while jeopardizing the Nations' missions of protecting land and water protection.[2]

Opportunities

In British Columbia, opportunities for Indigenous-led conservation initiatives are emerging as crucial pathways towards tackling the current ecological and climate crisis.[28] Through fostering environmental stewardship, preserving cultural heritage, and promoting sustainable development Indigenous peoples are reclaiming their roles as land stewards.[29] There is also a growing recognition of the unique knowledge systems and traditional practices that have sustained ecosystems for generations.

Expansion of Indigenous-Led Area-Based Conservation (ILABC)

Indigenous-Led Area-Based Conservation (ILABC), is an initiative set to provide funding to projects run by Indigenous peoples. With this initiative, groups that plan on contributing to Canada's goals of conservation should become more prominent, and the conservation of 25% of Canada's land and inland water by 2025 are the most highly prioritized.[30] This plan is not only supposed to address issues of climate change and biodiversity loss, but also support indigenous communities in giving them a stronger voice in Canada’s climate crisis conversation. As of 2022, the Canadian Ministry of Environment and Climate Change announced that it would be accepting proposals of up to $40 million in funding.[31] Additionally, more than 50 Indigenous communities across Canada have received funding in relation to the Guardian program, which work to establish IPCAs and aid in early planning and engagement work.[28] This marks a great shift in Indigenous-Led Area-Based Conservation, as the Canadian government has started to provide support to these projects.

Kiskatinaw River Wildfire: An example of the destruction that is sweeping British Columbia's landscape

Support for Indigenous Conservation Mechanisms: Indigenous Fire Stewardship

As climate change intensifies natural disasters on a global scale, wildfires have become an increasingly larger risk to ecosystems and communities across British Columbia.[32] With the rise of such detrimental events, there is an interest from wildfire agencies for solutions and mitigation strategies that go beyond typical models and emphasize the importance of traditional Indigenous practices, such as cultural burning.[32] Cultural burning is a traditional practice which has been integral to Indigenous communities for millennia, as the controlled form of landscape burning effectively reduces the risk of wildfires and promotes biodiversity preservation.[32] Contemporary colonial methods of controlled burning are not as effective as those based in Indigenous fire stewardship, as they must operate through Indigenous methodology in order to yield the same success.[32] Acknowledgement of such conservation mechanisms that are based in Indigenous knowledge and culture, and that must operate through Indigenous governance to be successful presents an opportunity for Indigenous-led conservation to take place across the province as it is now in the best interest of everyone.

Remodeling Conservation Models

There are several opportunities for remodeling current conservation models and ideologies to support Indigenous stewardship in British Columbia. For example, the Huu-ay-ahy First Nation has been negotiating treaties with the provincial and federal government for the last 15 years, aiming to reintroduce their traditional forest management practices.[33] These traditional forest practices are based on Hishuk Tsawak, which is a set of both spiritual beliefs and everyday practices that means “everything is one/connected”. [33] The worldview of Hishuk Tsawak has the potential to create an alternative to forestry practices in the province. Models such as the Decolonial Model of Environmental Management and Conservation (‘Decolonial Model’) are alternatives to dominant western management styles and conservation approaches. These strategies emphasize the importance of the resurgence of Indigenous-led and community-led conservation.[34] A model like this aims to improve social and ecological outcomes of resource management by focusing on environmental interactions and their governance.[34]

Conclusion

Overall, Indigenous-led conservation initiatives are crucial efforts in protecting biodiversity, mitigating/adapting to climate change, and protecting ecosystems. Indigenous land stewardship is a complex and interconnected method based on traditional ecological knowledge, that has historically been suppressed by settler colonialism. Although Indigenous-led conservation projects such as the Klinse-Za Mountain Caribou population recovery and the Gitanyow Lax’yip Land Use Plan have proven to be successful, there are still many barriers for creating and sustaining other initiatives. To this point, efforts to implement and engage Indigenous-led conservation within British Columbia are met with barriers revolving around Western science validation of Indigenous-led conservation strategies, government pressure to continue resource extraction, sustainable financial support, and systemic legal barriers. Furthermore, rising national attention to the benefits that can be yielded from Indigenous-led conservation provides an avenue to future opportunities within protected-area expansion, promotion of specific cultural practices and redefining typical colonial conservation models. To sum, Indigenous-led conservation embodies a diverse and effective approach to conservation issues in British Columbia that is subject to several challenges but is not limited in opportunities.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Jeanty, Julia (November 2021). "Indigenous-Led Conservation: A Pathway Towards 30x30" (PDF). Files for Progress. Retrieved April 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 Townsend, J; Roth, R. (2023). "Indigenous and decolonial futures: Indigenous protected and conserved areas as potential pathways of reconciliation". Frontiers in Human Dynamics. 5.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 N, Mansuy; et al., (2023). "Indigenous protected and conserved areas (IPCAs): Canada's new path forward for biological and cultural conservation and Indigenous well-being". Facets. 8: 1–16.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 "Terminology Guide". Queen's University. Retrieved April 13, 2024. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":14" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ Vowel, Chelsea (2016). Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis, & Inuit Issues in Canada. Winnipeg, MB, Canada: Highwater Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-55379-684-8.
  6. ↑ "B.C. FIRST NATIONS & INDIGENOUS PEOPLE". British Columbia. Retrieved April 13, 2024.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 "Focus on Geography Series, 2016 Cenus". Statistics Canada. Retrieved April 14, 2024.
  8. ↑ "Indian Status". Indigenous Foundations Arts UBC. Retrieved April 14, 2024.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "About Indian Status". Government of Canada. Retrieved April 14, 2024.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Dick (Kwaxsistalla Wathl’thla), Chief Ada; Sewid-Smith (Mayanilth), Daisy; Recalma-Clutesi (Oqwilowgwa), Kim; Deur (Moxmowisa), Douglas; Turner (Galitsimġa), N.J (14 April 2022). ""From the beginning of time": The colonial reconfiguration of native habitats and Indigenous resource practices on the British Columbia Coast". FACETS. 7(): 543-570.
  11. ↑ George, Earl M; Reeve, Phyllis (Fall 2004). "Living on the Edge; Nuu-Chah-Nulth History from an Ahousaht Chief's Perspective". British Columbia History. 37(4): 33 – via ProQuest.
  12. ↑ "How cultural burning enhances landscapes and lives". British Columbia. May 5, 2022. Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Jeanty, Julia (November 2021). "Indigenous-Led Conservation: A Pathway Towards 30x30" (PDF). Files for Progress. Retrieved April 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  14. ↑ Nagy-Reis, Mariana; et al. (April 2021). "Habitat loss accelerates for the endangered woodland caribou in western Canada". Conservation Science and Practice. 3 – via Society for Conservation Biology. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 Lamb, Clayton; et al. (March 2022). "Indigenous-led conservation: Pathways to recovery for the nearly extirpated Klinse-Za mountain caribou". Ecological Applications. 32 – via Web of Science. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)
  16. ↑ Canada, P. S. and P. C, Government of (n.d). "Information archivée dans le Web" (PDF). Information archivée dans le Web. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 BC, Gov (March 2024). "Old growth deferral areas". Government of British Columbia. Retrieved April 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Woodside, John (August 2021). "Everything you need to know about the Fairy Creek protests". The Canadian Press. Retrieved April 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Legree, Davis (April 2023). "A watershed moment at the Fairy Creek watershed? B.C. Forestry Policy and Punctuated Equilibrium Theory". Queen's University Library. Retrieved April 2024. line feed character in |title= at position 49 (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  20. ↑ Isaac, G.; et al., (2018). "Native american perspectives on health and traditional ecological knowledge". Environmental Health Perspectives. 12.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Thornton, Thomas (2012). [DOI: 10.5751/ES-04714-170308 "Collaborative Engagement of Local and Traditional Knowledge and Science in Marine Environments: A Review"] Check |url= value (help). Ecology and Society. 17.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Lake, F; et al., (2017). "Returning fire to the land: celebrating traditional knowledge and fire". Journal of Forestry. 115: 343–353.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  23. ↑ Hoffman, K; et al., (2022). "The right to burn: Barriers and opportunities for indigenous-led fire stewardship in canada". Facets. 7: 464–481.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  24. ↑ Adams, M; Carpenter, J; Housty, J; Neasloss, D; Paquet, P; Service, C (2014). "Towards increased engagement between academic and indigenous community partners in ecological research". Ecology & Society. 19.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Youdelis, M; et al. (2021). "Decolonial conservation: Establishing Indigenous protected areas for future generations in the face of extractive capitalism". Journal of Political Ecology. 28. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Diggon, S; et al., (2022). "The marine plan partnership for the north pacific coast – MaPP: A collaborative and co-led marine planning process in british columbia". Marine Policy. 142.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Gamage, Michelle (2023). "One of the Last Herring Roe Harvests on the Coast". The Tyee. Retrieved April 10. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 N, Mansuy; et al., (2023). "Indigenous protected and conserved areas (IPCAs): Canada's new path forward for biological and cultural conservation and Indigenous well-being". Facets. 8: 1–16.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  29. ↑ Townsend, J; Roth, R. (2023). "Indigenous and decolonial futures: Indigenous protected and conserved areas as potential pathways of reconciliation". Frontiers in Human Dynamics. 5.
  30. ↑ "Indigenous-Led Area-Based Conservation". 2022, September 22. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  31. ↑ "Up to $40 million in indigenous-led area-based conservation funding now available". (2022, Sep 26). Check date values in: |date= (help)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Hoffman, K; et al., (2022). "The right to burn: Barriers and opportunities for indigenous-led fire stewardship in canada". Facets. 7: 464–481.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Castleden, Heather; Garvin, Theresa (27 August 2009). ""Hishuk Tsawak" (Everything Is One/Connected): A Huu-ay-aht Worldview for Seeing Forestry in British Columbia, Canada". Society & Natural Resources. 22(9): 789–804. |first3= missing |last3= (help)
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Artelle, K.A (January 2022). "Decolonial Model of Environmental Management and Conservation: Insights from Indigenous-led Grizzly Bear Stewardship in the Great Bear Rainforest". Ethics, Policy & Environment. 24(3): 283–323 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
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