Course:CONS200/2023WT2/Understanding the Dynamics of Human-Leopard Conflict in India’s Financial Capital Mumbai

Introduction

Indian Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca)

The dynamics of the human-leopard conflict in Mumbai, India's financial capital, are complex and multidimensional. Despite being an urban environment, Mumbai has a larger leopard population than other rural areas primarily because of the surplus amount of domestic animals as prey . This highlights the extraordinary ability of leopards to co-exist in urban environments, displaying their adaptability and wide ecological niche. However, increasing development in the urban landscape, such as the construction of highways, may pose a significant threat towards habitats and population of the Leopard species. Conservationists have been tasked with challenges to maintain stable relationships between humans and leopards, although they do not always succeed. With the high density of leopards living in close proximity to human settlements, there have been instances of humans falling victim to leopard attacks. To solve these issues, there have been geo-informatic approaches, village response teams, and park officers deployed to mitigate negative conservation outcomes. However, many suggested solutions have been rejected due to the complexity of the conflict. For example, one might think a simple solution to the conflict would be creating barricades throughout the urban area to protect citizens from leopard attacks. Yet, one important consideration of this conflict is the sustainability of the leopards, thus calling for a solution that is mutually beneficial. If barricades were created, leopards would be facing unnatural barriers to their lifestyles, which do not promote coexistence. By understanding the interplay between human activities and leopard behavioral patterns, Mumbai can minimize conflicts and promote working towards a harmonized coexistence.

Background

Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), located in Mumbai, Maharashtra, is an 87 km2 (34 sq mi) protected area and is prime leopard territory. The Sanjay Gandhi National Park is a historic park dating back to the 4th century BC, where ports Sopoara and Kalyan were important hubs for trade and commerce in ancient India, engaging in exchanges with civilizations like Greece. These cities were crucial points along trade routes that connected India with distant lands like Mesopotamia. The park was originally called Krishnagari National Park in the pre-independence era, covering a minimal 20.26 sq. km. In 1969, the park expanded, acquiring new and various reserve forest properties. In 1981 it was re-dedicated as we know today, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, with the name originating from the son of ex-Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi. Leopards who have historically been a part of this landscape are a top predator in the park where they play a crucial role in terms of socio-ecological health by regulating ecosystem dynamics.

The leopard (Panthera pardus) is the most widespread felid, ranging from Africa to Asia, including areas near major towns like Mumbai. SGNP, along with the adjacent Aarey area, is home to more than 40 big cats, marking the highest density of leopards globally, with approximately one leopard per 2-3 square kilometers.

Stray dogs in the streets of Mumbai at night. They are the primary forms of prey for leopards, especially at night.

Leopards are classified as habitat generalists with the widest geographical distribution among all the Panthera cats. These big cats exhibit behavioral plasticity, allowing them to thrive in areas where other big cats have faced challenges. The species typically weigh anywhere from 23 - 31 kg, and similar to other cat species, perhaps their most significant natural advantage is their speed, running upwards of 60 kilometers per hour. Other key features of the animal include their nocturnal nature, agile climbing ability, and versatile hunting skills. While countries like the United States recognize leopards as an endangered species, the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) does not. Leopards coexist with tigers in the Indian subcontinent but have higher distribution, due to their ability to adapt to various forested and degraded habitats. The Leopard's ability to adapt to changing environments results in a complex conflict among humans in urban landscapes, having a constant threat with a population size of 14,000 and poachers illegally trading their body parts for profit, although they have the highest level of legal protection (Protection Act ,1972).

Leopard Activity in Urban Mumbai

The leopard, known for its solitary and territorial behaviour, typically displays caution and alertness when navigating roads, encountering approaching vehicles and human encounters. However, if provoked or feeling threatened, it might become more aggressive and may resort to attacking humans or other animals. Leopards amongst other large carnivores display remarkable adaptability and thrive across a variety of environments from arid regions of Africa to the cold Russian Far East regions. They also exhibit a wide range of dietary flexibility, including various wild species, and in the case of Mumbai, primarily preying upon domestic dogs which contributes the highest to their diet. This dietary adaptability influences leopard behavior, consequently having a high presence close to and within high-density human landscapes in urban areas of Mumbai. They are capable of running over 58 km/h, leap over 6 m (20 ft) horizontally, and jump up to 3 m (9.8 ft) vertically. These physical capabilities enable them to navigate diverse landscapes and hunt effectively within urban environments.

All around the world, increased levels of urbanization are resulting in a greater occurrence of interactions between humans and wildlife. The resulting cohabitation promotes new human-wildlife dynamics in cities and requires innovative approaches for coping with wildlife in habitats that are not conventionally considered as suitable. Populations of large carnivores such as leopards are often suppressed in human-dominated landscapes as they can kill or injure people and domestic animals. Furthermore, year-round, and high-energy food sources in urban areas have positive effects on survival, growth rate, and population densities of carnivorous species.India is one of the only megacities of 10 million plus people where large felines breed, hunt and maintain territory within urban boundaries.

The Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), situated in Mumbai, India, has discovered a sudden increase and high presence of leopard density (26.34 ± 4.96 leopards/100 km2) despite the high human density (over 20,000 people/km2) within this urban area. This national park is home to one of the world's highest densities of leopards (approx. 21.55 per 100 sq km), providing a fascinating example of coexistence between urban development and wildlife conservation. Leopards in urban Mumbai often seek refuge in secluded areas like forested patches and abandoned buildings, while within the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, they most dominantly inhabit forested terrains and rocky outcrops, occasionally venturing into nearby urban neighborhoods in search of prey.

Food thrown outside by people attracts local pigs and dogs, which increases the leopard's presence as they can hunt much more easily than chasing after deer in the park. They are also highly skilled climbers, often hoisting their prey into trees to protect its food from other potential animals and avoid human disturbances. As night falls, these nocturnal animals emerge, transforming urban areas into hunting grounds for these powerful predators. Their impressive night vision, facilitated by their large eyes and dilated pupils, enables them to thrive in low-light environments. Despite having 998 protected areas covering 5.28% of its total geographic area, about 83% of the leopard population exists outside protected areas in India. In the vicinity of the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, which adjoins the city, there are currently 45 leopards, where instances of leopard attacks on humans have occurred annually. In 2002, Leopard attacks had peaked in Aarey, with 25 cases in six months, making Mumbai residents' question about their safety . Leopards generally avoid humans, but if they feel threatened, they may react defensively and attack. Recent efforts have successfully dropped the frequency of leopard attacks, through innovative solutions. Leopards in Mumbai are not necessarily present to harm people; instead, they navigate their urban habitat primarily in search of prey and suitable shelter helping with their overall survival. The intricate coexistence of Leopards within urban areas in Mumbai, highlights the need for innovative conservation strategies that balances human development with the preservation of wildlife habitats and species.

Going Forward with Leopard Conflicts and Solutions

Although there is high density of leopards in Mumbai, the species is still listed as endangered under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act. Experts have acknowledged that leopards will not continue to grow in population due to their need for broad ranges of habitat, and the increasing urbanization of Mumbai coupled with forest degradation. Poaching is also a significant factor in the limitation of leopard population growth, partly due to the oversaturation of leopard attacks in the media, causing a negative view towards the animal. The reason why leopards have been able to thrive on domestic animals is because of the compassionate relationship that India has with dogs and other leopard prey. In India, euthanasia is illegal to use on dogs, which allows for an immense amount of free range stray dogs that sustain a major part of leopards' diet. Many of these stray dogs roaming the streets carry deadly diseases such as rabies, and have bitten many humans, causing 420 people to die of rabies over a 20 year period . Within this intersectional relationship between human-leopard-dog, leopards can help benefit humans by preying on dogs with rabies, saving India thousands of dollars from sterilization costs .

Leopard stalking the streets of Mumbai at night

Although leopards have proven to be beneficial to humans in Mumbai, there have been occasional instances of leopard attacks on humans. These attacks have sparked massive outrage among the human populations, causing set-backs to conservation initiatives. To mitigate these problems, experts track certain shrubland or village hotspots that have seen increased attacks, and forest or park officials can monitor these hotspots to limit conflicts. Also, wildlife deterrents and Village Response Teams can be used to limit community retaliation against leopards, protecting both sides of the conflict. Therefore, it is important to consider the dangers of leopards, as the still are apex predators in nature. While preventing damage should be prioritized, ensuring that the leopards' habitat is not destroyed.

Using Geo-informatics Approaches

Geo-informatics have been used to track the spatial distributions of leopards using scat detection and pug marks, and also anthropogenic influences such as settlements and agricultural areas using GIS (Geographic Information System). These measures can help researchers understand human-leopard conflicts and mortalities, and where they will most likely occur. GIS approaches also provide data about poaching deaths, road accidents, and other important statistics. GIS also enables mapping of anthropogenic contributions to leopard habitat, including human residences, agricultural sites, and infrastructure developments. Understanding the negative influence of human developments on leopard territories provides insights into the causes of conflicts and allows the perspective to shift towards conservation. With the interactive mapping and decision support systems, government agencies, conservation institutions, communities, and research establishments are able to share information and collaborate on solving this issue. Moreover, GIS promotes a hollistic approach to managing the human-leopard conflict. By accumulating a spatial perspective on the human-leopard conflicts, decision makers are given more insight to establish certain laws and regulations to tackle the issue .

Capturing and/or Translocating Leopards

In cases where leopards have attacked humans, conservationists have advocated for sending the animal to a zoo or rescue center. This is to prevent the leopard from attacking again, to keep communities safe, and to prevent human retaliations. Many people argue against detainment because it would only delay another conflict. This argument is based on the fact that once a leopard is incarcerated, it will act the same way once it is set free, or another leopard will occupy the previous leopard's territory and attack humans again. Another problem with this strategy is the detainment of female leopards with cubs. When a mother leopard is captured and her cubs are left alone, there have been instances of the cubs resorting to attacking humans days later.

Instead of simply capturing a leopard and putting it in an enclosed space, forest officials have launched programs to translocate them from urban areas to protected areas. This strategy is a way to conserve the leopards in their natural habitat, avoiding the outcome of keeping them in cages. Although this strategy seems like a good approach, it has had negative outcomes. Near the release site of the captured animal, there were higher outcomes of attacks than there were before the translocation initiative

Education and Outreach

By spreading awareness of the significance of leopards to an ecosystem while also maintaining cautionary attitudes near attack hotspots, Mumbai can improve the human-leopard relationship. Teaching local communities that reside near leopard habitats is extremely important to reduce risks of leopard attacks There are many different positive and negative perspectives of leopards in India depending on religion, culture, and colonial history. Some communities that may have experienced past attacks see leopards as a problem, leading to instances of angry mobs killing the animal. Educating the masses to illustrate the importance of conserving not just leopards but all native biodiversity will prove to be a successful conservation mechanism. The importance of predators in an ecosystem is vital to regulating the populations of other species, and the entire ecosystem will collapse without them. Instead of primarily forcing leopards to change their behaviors, humans can shift their behaviors as well. Since most leopard attacks occur at night, people in Mumbai can avoid walking alone at night, and street lights can be installed in areas of active leopards. Additionally, there are other practices in different urban contexts that can be useful for preventing leopard attacks without interfering with their lifestyles. For example, street signs can be placed as a warning for potential leopard sightings. Such signs are typically placed to alert vehicle operators of harmless wildlife such as deer, horses, or young children crossings. They are also seen on hiking trails where there may be dangerous snakes present. The significance of leopards can also be taught in the education systems of Mumbai, ensuring that future generations understand both the importance of leopards in the ecosystem, and how to avoid leopard attacks. These measures will provide a safer city for both humans and leopards.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the human-leopard conflict in Mumbai is an extremely unique case study in modern society. In an age where human technology has become unsustainable, wildlife has perhaps been the most negatively impacted, often resulting in extinction, habitat fragmentation, or physical harm of different species. Thus, the majority of urban areas have a lack of coexistence with wildlife. Mumbai therefore displays a natural relationship between humans and wildlife, and part of such relationship are the dangers, which are seen with the leopard attacks on humans and domestic animals. Moreover, it is up for determination whether the costs of wildlife coexistence is worth more than the costs of society without coexistence or not.