Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Paleoecology: How looking at forests of the past may offer hope for the future

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Introduction to Forest Conservation

Old growth forest of Haltiala, Tuomarinkylä, Helsinki, Finland

Covering approximately 31% of the global land area, forests and woodlands are distributed throughout the world, mainly in Brazil, Canada, China, Russia, and the United States of America.[1] Naturally regenerated trees (also known as old-growth forests) account for nearly 93% of the forests, and 7% are composed of planted trees.[1][2] Old-growth forests, compared to new-growth, are larger carbon reservoirs and harbour a significant portion of global terrestrial biodiversity, especially for species that are unique to specific ecosystems.[1] However, anthropogenic pressures such as deforestation and forest degradation have caused a significant biodiversity decline and forest loss that affects old-growth forests.[2] This results in a decrease in ecosystem services that affect the Earth’s and humans’ health while aggravating climate change effects.[2]

In an attempt to address the harms of the reduction in forests, contemporary methods of forest conservation, such as natural reserves and sustainable use forests, have been employed.[1] With that said, current conservation methods often rely on data from protected areas compromised by human interference and limit the necessary space for biodiversity. To better understand former occurrences in forest reserves beyond recent disturbances, the integration of paleoecology is necessary to determine what contemporary forests require.[3]

Introduction to Paleoecology within Forest Conservation

Paleoecology studies interactions between organisms and their environment across geologic timescales.[4] It relies on uniformitarianism, in which the same natural laws, processes, and patterns happening in the present day have also occurred in the geologic past.[5] With paleoecological methods, ancient forest conditions can be assessed by reconstructing forest compositions, disturbances and structures over extensive periods to solve present problems.[3] As such, analysis of historical pollen from former tree species to charcoal analysis of past vegetation-fire-climate relationships paints a broader picture of ancient ecosystems that have influenced current ones.

Further research from past conditions can provide baseline data to restore or maintain ecosystems in their 'natural state'; therefore assessing how human influences, or lack thereof, have altered forest ecosystems.[6] With that said, humans have always co-existed alongside modern forests, and considerations must be made when attempting to maintain 'natural' forest ecosystems. By understanding the historical variations of ancient forests, scientists, conservationists, and policymakers may be able to adapt to and anticipate future climate changes in modern restoration planning and management.

Linking Forests to Natural and Anthropogenic Climate Change

Global warming

Projected global change in temperatures according to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report

Global warming has resulted in a rise of 1.1℃ above 1850-1900 in 2011-2020 caused by changes in climatic conditions varying from an increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations to mass loss of vegetation.[7] Even so, historic variations in climate have been pertinent to the rise and fall of forested lands due to the climate cycling of glacial and interglacial periods, with the interglacial stage lasting 10,000 to 30,000 years. Longer glacial stages had cold, dry climates that were not as suitable for forests due to their immature, base-rich soils, suggesting that forests have cycled through periods of increasing and decreasing biomass.[8] Thus, biomass, particularly microorganisms within the soil, that evolved within historical environments will respond based on historical climate rather than present-day environmental changes.[9] Considering current global warming, human impacts can have direct implications from the rapid rate of greenhouse gas emissions starting 5000-6000 years ago (mid-Holocene).[8] Such shifts in temperature, biomass, and soil changes are pertinent to current global warming conditions in which tree biomass declines rapidly. For instance, the rate of warming within several thousand years is significantly faster compared to typical glacial-to-interglacial progression. Consequently, accelerated climate fluctuations and stressors have outpaced the capacity for forests and woodland to adapt, dramatically affecting their composition.[10] As a result, the more dynamic interaction between climate and forest brings little insight into the conservation of forests. Commonly used baselines based on former environmental conditions fail to recognize how landscapes and ecosystems have already been altered by industrial society.[11]

Loss of biodiversity

With the onset of human disturbances, the World Wildlife Fund's (WWF; 2022) Global Living Planet Report reported “an average 69% decrease in monitored [vertebrate] wildlife populations between 1970 and 2018” (p. 12).[12] The WWF indicates ecosystem degradation, overexploitation and habitat fragmentation as the main drivers of declining biodiversity, resulting in the substantial loss in species richness and evenness. These drivers appear more frequently as human development, such as agriculture and urbanization, takes precedence over the consequences of deforestation and overuse of land.[12][13] Even so, rapidly diminishing forests and woodlands would result in the disappearance of a third of the available habitat on Earth, particularly in abundant forest areas such as Africa, Central and South America, and South and Southeast Asia.[1] As noted by Brockerhoff et al. (2017), forest ecosystems with high levels of biodiversity are linked with “key ecological processes that are driving the functioning, integrity or maintenance of forest ecosystems” (p. 3008).[2] Furthermore, implications of ecological degradation are recognized as precursors to dramatic forms of biodiversity loss, such as the Big Five mass extinctions.[14] The current extinction rate may not be as intense as previous mass extinctions, yet humanity may soon reach an extinction tipping point similar to ancient ecosystems.[14]

Ecosystem services

Given the broad consequences of climate change, the global deterioration in forests and woodlands has led to declining ecosystem services. Forest diversity is connected to the improvement of both ecosystem functions and services, enhancing the health of the ecosystem itself and humans.[2] The Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) links ecosystem services to human well-being under the services of provisioning (e.g. food, water, natural medicines), regulating (e.g. climate regulation, water regulation), cultural (e.g. recreational, spiritual, aesthetic values), and supporting (e.g. nutrient cycling, soil formation).[15] In this case, trees and vegetation are natural methods of adapting and mitigating climate change through services, such as carbon sequestration, to reduce global warming.[16] Dense forests could also intercept particulates and gaseous pollutants, functioning as a buffer zone between agricultural activities and other habitats.[6] Addressing biodiversity loss can also fall under one of the critically important ecosystem services by provisioning habitats for biomass production.[2] Moreover, forested areas are a popular tool for urban centres looking to reduce the urban heat island (UHI) effect.[1] Along the same vein of paleoecology, paleo-environmental information can also assist in “identifying reference conditions, trajectories, thresholds and the availability or degradation of ecosystem services over the longer term” (Pearson et al., 2015, as cited in Dearing et al., 2011) using past ecological processes and variability.[17] For this reason, paleoecology and its sister fields optimize current understandings of ecosystem valuation meant to explain socio-environmental interactions.[17]

Vegetation-fire-climate relationship

As can be expected, forest ecosystems and biodiversity are driven by, and a result of, various factors, including natural and anthropogenic disturbances.[1] In particular, human-caused and natural fires play a pivotal role in forest restoration, maintenance, and destruction. Ecosystems with intermediate productivity and seasonal dry periods are more prone to natural fires.[1][18] In turn, these low-intensity, high-frequency burnings reduce fuel loads (e.g. dead wood, low vegetation) that accumulate on the forest floor and induce secondary succession.[19] These processes have occurred in ancient forests over geologic time and were also subject to changes in climate, such as dry conditions that can increase the frequency of fires or insect outbreaks. To illustrate, present-day old-growth forests and ancient trees in the eastern USA are a product of historical events that occurred during drier periods compared to current, more moist conditions.[20] Additionally, the Medieval Warm Period (ca. 950 to 1250 AD) saw a marginal increase in burning in Southern forests.[19][13] Moreover, Indigenous fire stewardship has contributed to the health of ecosystems via spatiotemporally heterogeneous fire regimes and patterns guided by traditional knowledge and practices.[21] Yet, the dramatic increase in human activity has also been connected to increased burnings, suggesting that anthropogenic drivers of fire have produced more significant effects than climatic drivers.[13] Modified fire regimes shifted consistently with the evolution of land use, from clearing forests to fire suppression and prescribed burnings. Eras of fire suppression came after an extensive increase in anthropogenic burnings, resulting in homogenous landscapes that have intensified and generated forest fires in tandem with climate change-induced droughts.[2][13][21] Subsequently, contemporary practices of fire regimes, including controlled or prescribed burns, have been established to encourage ecological processes and species progression.[19] Advocating for the inclusion of culturally relevant and guided Indigenous ecological knowledge may also contribute to severe fire mitigation and forest regeneration.[21]

Insights from historical climate variability

Pressure from human activities has resulted in significant global changes, from habitat loss and rising temperatures to increased natural disturbances.[2] Under the assumption of uniformitarianism, one must consider the impact of natural disturbances/events in the past to understand the current state of forests.[11] Anthropogenic impacts throughout ancient history have significantly influenced the natural processes and adaptations of ‘undisturbed’ forests. This can prove problematic when considering which forests determine the baseline of conservation strategies.[11] Varying forms of evolution, disturbances, and climate variability could have occurred over several thousand-year timespans, influencing succession and affecting results from current paleological analysis (i.e. pollen, charcoal, etc.).[6] Conversely, forest landscapes have also naturally shifted without the direct intervention of humans. The shift from cooler to warmer climates throughout the Holocene likely led to equatorial forests advancing northward to more favourable conditions through scattered migration.[22] Simultaneously, various wetland vegetation did not exhibit the same response to shifting climates as equatorial greenery but were affected by the presence of groundwater.[11] Therefore, ancient forests had unique responses to historical climate and anthropogenic variability, much like contemporary forest landscapes. Integrating longer temporal records can be utilized in predicting future impacts of changing climates to ensure the long-term stability of forests. However, this would depend on factors such as the rate of global warming and intense natural disturbances.

Paleoecological Techniques

Pollen analysis

Sediment core, layers up throughout the geological timescale

Pollen analysis is a fundamental method for quantitatively interpreting forest history by examining sediment core samples.[23] The analysis involves microscopic identification of flora species based on pollen qualities such as shape, size, texture, and structure.[23] Found in sediment sites such as lakes, bogs, and wetlands, deposited pollen layers up chronologically throughout the geological timescale.[23][24] This palaeoecological method is particularly effective for a wide range of landscapes due to the abundance, widespread, and excellent preservation quality of pollen.[24] Pollen analysis can unveil tree species composition, natural plant community distribution, and ecosystem conditions, allowing for landscape assessments.[24] Scientists use this data to compare pollen patterns with historical climate data and to identify past significant events in the ecosystem.[23][24] However, interpreting pollen poses challenges due to variations in pollen types and production quantities, making pollen analysis reliant on ecosystem-specific productivity and chronological controls.[24]

Initially a method for geological dating, pollen analysis is now utilized in climate change research by examining past ecosystems and their relations to climate conditions. Via such observations, researchers can recognize how past ecosystems respond to climate shifts, offering insights for predicting future ecosystem responses and implementing effective climate mitigation and adaptation measures.[25]

Charcoal analysis

Charcoal analysis involves studying macro and micro-carbonized remains, providing valuable insights into historical flora and fauna relationships and interactions within an ecosystem.[26] Resistant to biological mineralization, carbonized remains can withstand high microbial activity in places such as soils, where pollen and plant macrofossils are absent.[24] Commonly arising from local natural events such as volcanic activity and wildfires, charcoal remains can provide temporal records of the past, specifically on past fire events, making it an effective tool for reconstructing millennial-scale fire histories.[24] Microparticles give insight into regional-level fire activity, while macro remains give more localized records due to their respective abilities to travel.[24] With that said, traces of anthropogenic influences, such as charcoal production and wood transportation, can also be identified, offering insights into prehistoric human interactions with fire and nature.[24][27] Nevertheless, limitations exist; for instance, low-intensity fires may not produce sediment charcoal, and current technological advancements have not achieved precision in determining the exact timing and extent of individual fires.[24]

Macro-carbonized remains offer insights into tree species composition, prehistoric use of fire, and the presence of specific vegetation within an ecosystem.[27] Identification of macro-carbonized remains is typically conducted through a reflected light microscope, classifying species based on their cellular structure.[27] Furthermore, macro-carbonized wood is used in dendrochronology.[27] On the other hand, microcharcoal remains are found in sediment cores alongside pollen, used to depict fire activity in a select region.[26]  

Through charcoal analysis, scientists have access to climate and fire records to gain insight into the impact of climate change on fire activity.[27] The prehistoric economy was heavily dependent on firewood energy. Thus, charcoal analysis is a reliable and logical approach for examining historical anthropogenic, providing insight into the underlying causes of climate change.[27] Furthermore, understanding past alterations in an ecosystem can aid researchers in gauging the future extent of fire consequences stemming from a warming climate.[27]  

Fossil Analysis (Beetles)

Fossil beetle analysis is a quantitative assessment of fauna and floral assemblages from past fossil records, offering a rich source of information due to the abundance of beetles.[28] As one of the most diverse orders, with over 300,000 known species and approximately 1,500 new species described annually, beetles are endemic and inhabit specialized habitats.[29] Thus, beetles can provide rich palaeoecological data on distinct environments, demonstrating resilience from desert conditions to freezing temperatures, reaching as low as -40℃.[29] Fossilized beetles have valuable data for deducing past species composition, species longevity, soil characteristics, individual tree environments, tree species density, large-scale distribution, and gap dynamics.[24] Most importantly, beetle fossil records provide evidence of changes in biotic communities and shifts in species distribution in response to environmental change, given the beetle's high sensitivity to its environment.[29] As such, beetles are at the forefront of ecological change and offer a valuable perspective on environmental shifts.[29]

The Mutual Climatic Range (MCR) is a commonly used method to analyze fossils and reconstruct paleoclimates, creating estimates of summer and winter temperatures.[28] With that said, the MCR method assumes that the present climatic tolerance of a species is also applicable to its quaternary fossil record.[28] Nevertheless, exploring climate patterns and resulting ecosystem reaction patterns using Holocene fossil beetles could generate tangible data points. By comparing Holocene and Anthropocene climatic differences and similarities using beetles, future reactive responses of ecosystems and their organisms can be more thoroughly understood.[29]

Dendrochronology

Cross-section of deciduous oak

Dendrochronology is a method for dating the age of trees by analyzing annual tree rings and intercomparing tree ring patterns.[30] Since trees are present in nearly every biome, dendrochronology applies to many diverse ecosystems.[31][32] Annually, a woody plant experiences radial growth in its trunk through a layer of actively dividing cells called the cambium layer. This cambium layer, responsible for regulatory functions, pushes previously formed tissues inward, forming distinct tree rings.[30] A ring consists of two components: the earlywood, which forms at the beginning of the growing season, and the latewood, which develops later in the season.[30] Thus, variations in the thickness of the cell walls and structure of the tree ring correlate with changes in climate conditions.[30] Likewise, annual fluctuations in atmospheric factors, such as temperature, humidity, and solar energy, influence growing conditions.[30] As such, tree rings reflect past climate variability and environmental conditions, aiding in quantitative reconstructions of past temperatures and hydroclimate.[32]  

Scientists can reconstruct past tree population dynamics, accurately date the year of formation, identify climate anomalies, and discern seasonal climate variations by analyzing mean population growth patterns, changes in width, wood density, and chemical compositions in tree rings.[31] During the analysis, cross-dating enhances the accuracy of the data by comparing sequences to ensure the presence of similar patterns and account for anomalies, such as false or double rings, that may have occurred.[30] As such, dendrochronology can identify internal climate system changes in an ecosystem. By offering insights into past climate variability and seasonal climate changes, dendrochronology brings valuable context to understanding the contemporary, rapidly changing climate.[32]

Limitations to Paleoecology

Paleoecology techniques are limited to the available data source. While they offer significant temporal depth and robust quantitative insights into tree species and environmental disturbance history, challenges arise when attempting to capture past windstorms and insect outbreaks, limiting the reconstruction of historical ecological dynamics.[3] Forest, landscape, and chronological variations also introduce complexities, influencing the data source available in select regions.[3] For instance, dendrochronology is site-dependent, constrained to ecosystems with low wood-decay rates, and mainly applicable to recent time periods.[3][26] As such, careful consideration of data sources becomes paramount. In fossil analysis, beetles should be extracted from ecotones as these biotas are at the forefront of regional environmental change from biotic and abiotic factors, making for rich data points.[29] Additionally, interpretations of past conditions may not fully account for species loss and changing climatic conditions as paleoecology relies on samples and models from modern data.[3]

Despite these challenges, paleoecological techniques hold the potential to provide fundamental historical and biological insights into flora and fauna.[3] Pollen analysis is suitable for quantitative reconstruction, while charcoal and fossil analysis provide valuable qualitative data.[24] Although requiring high taxonomic identification skills, each technique can complement the other in interpretations of ecology across the geologic timescales.[24]

Current and Future Approaches to Forest Conservation

Nature reserves

One of the most common current conservation strategies is nature reserves. Nature reserves are protected areas set aside to preserve biodiversity and ecosystem services, being a generally effective approach.[33][34] For example, a study conducted across 75 nature reserves in China found that more than 80% of the studied nature reserves successfully improved ecosystem services, with older nature reserves having better ecosystem service protection than the younger ones.[33] Despite having largely positive impacts on conservation, nature reserves are not the ultimate solution, with correlations to decreases in net income and aggravate income inequality for people living on them.[35] Nature reserves are also an impractical solution that is not applicable globally. It would require a complete separation of humans from a significant portion of the natural world, thereby heavily reinforcing a dichotomous worldview, or people living on the nature reserves would be banned from using the necessary resources within them. While operating some nature reserves has positively impacted biodiversity and ecosystem preservation, they can be impractical when applied at large scales.

Sustainable-use forests

Sustainable-use forests, or community forestry, is a conservation mechanism which refers to forest and tree management undertaken cooperatively by the local people, either on their own or leased private, communal or state lands.[36] Community forestry programs are most widespread in South Asia, and, in total, 62 countries have given communities the legal rights to manage approximately 732 million hectares of national forests.[37] In one case study in Bangladesh, community forestry reduced deforestation and land encroachment while helping restore and maintain local biodiversity.[38] Furthermore, community forestry has been observed to bring positive socio-economic outcomes for the communities involved. For instance, a study conducted in Indonesia found that community forestry had positive outcomes concerning poverty alleviation.[39] As a result, sustainable use of forests may have positive environmental and socio-economic outcomes when executed well. However, successful outcomes depend on the implementation of sound governance and management models. Reliance on community governance without appropriate education and programs could reveal disparities in professional forestry education. As such, results can be inconsistent from community to community, leading to varying conservation outcomes and implementation.

Paleoecological restoration and adaptation strategies

Paleoecological research can inform future conservation strategies by providing baselines for ecosystems and natural ecosystem variability, revealing areas where biodiversity and landscapes have declined and guiding focus on ecological restoration.[11] By looking through paleoecological records, conservationists can form baselines, or reference points, of ecosystems before widespread human intervention to inform restoration and establish a range of natural ecosystem variability.[11] Subsequently, it can guide the choices conservationists make in restoring forests. For example, on the Italian peninsula, paleoecology was used to determine that there had been a dramatic decrease in deciduous wet and mesic tree taxa due to the degradation of the floodplain wetland ecosystem.[6] Italian conservationists can use this data to focus on restoring the floodplain wetland ecosystem and re-plant with species that previously were common there. With culturally relevant modifications, similar practices can also be applied elsewhere.

Paleoecology can also support conservationists and policymakers in outlining ecological thresholds and resilience, defining the limit of ecosystem stability.[11] Outlining the thresholds and resilience of global systems can apply to conservation considering climate change. Contemporary anthropogenic climate change has the potential to push ecosystems outside of their ecological thresholds, which can prove fatal to biodiversity. As such, ecological thresholds derived from paleoecological records could test what thresholds have already been broken, and which are nearing their limit.[11] Paleoecologically observed resilience can be applied to adaptation strategies by determining resilience factors. These methods may assist in altering ecosystems’ or species’ climatic thresholds and make them more resilient to changing climatic conditions.[11]

Conclusion

Forest conservation involves the planning and maintenance of sustainable forests for future generations using a myriad of mechanisms, including nature reserves and sustainable-use forests. Additionally, paleoecology studies organisms' interactions with their environment over geological timescale, using various paleoecological techniques, such as pollen analysis, charcoal analysis, fossil analysis, and dendrochronology. Through geological and paleoecological records, evidence suggests that the warming climate and declining biodiversity are at a faster rate than in the past due to anthropogenic pressures. In implementing paleoecology, assessments of ancient forest conditions can create a baseline for natural ecosystem variability, evaluating areas in which ecosystems have declined or pushed beyond their natural variability. Establishing baselines and thresholds for ecological resilience can also generate improved communication of conservation issues, particularly to the public and policymakers. Overall, ecological baselines and thresholds demonstrated by paleoecological research can influence policy to create better adaptation strategies in response to climate change and biodiversity loss.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; United Nations Environment Programme (2020). The State of the World’s Forests 2020: Forests, biodiversity and people. Rome: FAO and UNEP. pp. 10–15. doi:10.4060/ca8642en. ISBN 978-92-5-132419-6.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Brockerhoff, Eckehard G.; Barbaro, Luc; Bastien, Castagneyrol; Forrester, David I.; Gardiner, Barry; et al. (November 2017). "Forest biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services". Biodiversity and Conservation. 26 (13): 3006–3008. doi:10.1007/s10531-017-1453-2.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Lindbladh, Matts; Fraver, Shawn; Edvardsson, Johannes; Felton, Adam (December 2013). "Past forest composition, structures and processes – How paleoecology can contribute to forest conservation". Biological Conservation. 15 (2): 117. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.09.021.
  4. ↑ Palaeoecology | paleoecology, n. . (2023). In Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/3902522849
  5. ↑ Scott, G.H. (December 1962). "Uniformitarianism, the uniformity of nature, and paleoecology". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 6 (4): 510–511. doi:10.1080/00288306.1963.10420063.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Piovesan, Gianluca; Mercuri, Anna Maria; Mensing, Scott A. (February 2017). "The potential of paleoecology for functional forest restoration planning: lessons from Late Holocene Italian pollen records". Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology. 152 (3): 508–509. doi:10.1080/11263504.2018.1435582.
  7. ↑ IPCC (2023). IPCC, 2023: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, H. Lee and J. Romero (eds.)]. Geneva, Switzerland: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p. 10. doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647.001 Check |doi= value (help).
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Birks, Hilary H.; Birks, H. J. B. (July 2004). "The Rise and Fall of Forests". Science. 305 (5683): 484–485. doi:10.1126/science.1101357.
  9. ↑ Hawkes, Christine V.; Waring, Bonnie G.; Rocca, Jennifer D.; Kivlin, Stephanie N. (May 2017). "Historical climate controls soil respiration responses to current soil moisture". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (24): 6322–6327. doi:10.1073/pnas.1620811114.
  10. ↑ Shaw, Ruth G.; Etterson, Julie R. (July 2012). "Rapid climate change and the rate of adaptation: insight from experimental quantitative genetics". New Phytologist. 195 (4): 752–753. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04230.x.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 Froyd, C.A.; Willis, K.J. (September 2008). "Emerging issues in biodiversity & conservation management: The need for a palaeoecological perspective". Quaternary Science Reviews. 27 (17–18): 1723–1724. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.06.006.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 World Wildlife Fund (2022). Almond, R.E.A.; Grooten, M.; Juffe Bignoli, D.; Peterson, D. (eds.). Living Planet Report 2022 - Building a nature-positive society. Gland, Switzerland: World Wildlife Fund. pp. 10–12. ISBN 978-2-88085-316-7.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Abrams, Marc D.; Nowacki, Gregory J. (January 2019). "Global change impacts on forest and fire dynamics using paleoecology and tree census data for eastern North America". Annals of Forest Science. 76 (8): 1–23. doi:10.1007/s13595-018-0790-y.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Holland, Steven M. (July 2016). "Ecological disruption precedes mass extinction". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113 (30): 8349–8351. doi:10.1073/pnas.1608630113.
  15. ↑ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press. pp. vi. ISBN 1-59726-040-1.
  16. ↑ Konijnendijk, C.C.; Randrup, T.B. (2004). "Urban Forestry". Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences: 475.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Pearson, Stuart; Lynch, A.J.J.; Donaldson, Jim; et al. (December 2014). "Increasing the understanding and use of natural archives of ecosystem services, resilience and thresholds to improve policy, science and practice". The Holocene. 25 (2): 366–367. doi:10.1177/0959683614558650.
  18. ↑ Kelly, Luke T.; Fletcher, Micheal-Shawn; Menor, Imma O.; Pellegrini, Adam F.A.; Plumanns-Pouton, Ella S.; Pons, Pere; Williamson, Grant J.; Bowman, David M.J.S. (August 2023). "Understanding Fire Regimes for a Better Anthropocene". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 48: 209–210. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-120220-055357. line feed character in |title= at position 27 (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Abbas, Sawaid; Nichol, Janet E.; Irteza, Syed M.; Usman, Muhammad (April 2023). "Impact of Fire on Secondary Forest Succession in a Sub-Tropical Landscape". Forests. 14 (5): 9–10. doi:10.3390/f14050865.
  20. ↑ Pederson, Neil; Dyer, James M.; McEwan, Ryan W.; Hessl, Amy E.; Mock, Cary J.; Orwig, David A.; Rieder, Harald E.; Cook, Benjamin I. (November 2014). "The legacy of episodic climatic events in shaping temperate, broadleaf forests". Ecological Monographs. 84 (4): 609. doi:10.1890/13-1025.1.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Copes-Gerbitz, Kelsey; Daniels, Lori D.; Hagerman, Shannon M. (January 2023). "The contribution of Indigenous stewardship to an historical mixed-severity fire regime in British Columbia, Canada". Ecological Applications. 33 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1002/eap.2736.
  22. ↑ Moore, Peter D. (January 1998). "Did forests survive the cold in a hotspot?". Nature. 391: 125–127. doi:10.1038/34292.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Godwin, H. (July 1994). "An Introduction to Pollen Analysis". Nature. 154 (67): 67. doi:10.1038/154067a0.
  24. ↑ 24.00 24.01 24.02 24.03 24.04 24.05 24.06 24.07 24.08 24.09 24.10 24.11 24.12 Lindbladh, Matts; Fraver, Shawn; Edvardsson, Johannes; Felton, Adam (December 2013). "Past forest composition, structures and processes – How paleoecology can contribute to forest conservation". Biological Conservation. 168: 118–119. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.09.021.
  25. ↑ Von Post, Lennart (December 1946). "The Prospect for Pollen Analysis in the Study of the Earth's Climatic History". The New Phytologist. 45 (2): 196. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1946.tb05056.x.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Scott, Andrew (May 2010). "Charcoal recognition, taphonomy and uses in palaeoenvironmental analysis". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 291 (1–2): 11--17. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.12.012.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 Marguerie, Dominique; Hunot, Jean-Yves (September 2007). "Charcoal analysis and dendrology: data from archaeological sites in north-western France". Journal of Archaeological Science. 34 (9): 1417, 1421, 1428. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.032.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Elias, Scott A. (November 1996). "Late Pleistocene and Holocene Seasonal Temperatures Reconstructed from Fossil Beetle Assemblages in the Rocky Mountains". Quaternary Research. 46 (3): 311. doi:10.1006/qres.1996.0069.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 Elias, S. A. (2010). "The Value of Insects in Paleoecology". Developments in Quaternary Sciences. 12: 47–48. doi:10.1016/S1571-0866(09)01204-4. |chapter= ignored (help)
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 Guibal, Frédéric; Joel, Guiot (January 2021). Dendrochronology. In: Ramstein, G., Landais, A., Bouttes, N., Sepulchre, P., Govin, A. (eds) Paleoclimatology. Frontiers in Earth Sciences. Switzerland: Springer, Cham. pp. 117–118. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-24982-3_8. ISBN 978-3-030-24981-6.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Godoy-Veiga, Milena (May 2021). "The value of climate responses of individual trees to detect areas of climate-change refugia, a tree-ring study in the Brazilian seasonally dry tropical forests". Forest Ecology and Management. 488: 118971. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2021.118971.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Anchukaitis, Kevin (September 2017). "Tree Rings Reveal Climate Change Past, Present, and Future". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 161 (3): 244–250, 255–257.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Liu, Yue; Zhao, Wenwu; Zhang, Zhijie; Hua, Ting; Ferreira, Carla (2023). "The role of nature reserves in conservation effectiveness of ecosystem services in China". Journal of Environmental Management. 342: 118228. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118228.
  34. ↑ Miller, Eyal; Spanier, Ehud; Diamant, Roee; Yahel, Ruthy (2023). "Nature reserves facilitate conservation of the Mediterranean slipper lobster Scyllarides latus". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 714: 57–69. doi:10.3354/meps14354.
  35. ↑ Ma, Ben; Kai, Zhen; Zheng, Jie; Wen, Yali (2019). "Conservation, ecotourism, poverty, and income inequality – A case study of nature reserves in Qinling, China". World Development. 115: 236–244. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.11.017.
  36. ↑ Wiersum, K (2004). "Social and collaborative forestry | social and community forestry". Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences: 1136–1143. doi:10.1016/B0-12-145160-7/00118-6.
  37. ↑ Buffum, B (2020). Community forestry: Sustainability and equity issues. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9780429445651-18.
  38. ↑ Jashimuddin, M; Islam, K; Nath, T (2022). "Local level forest governance and conservation outcomes in a co-managed protected area of Bangladesh". Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 41 (3): 302–318. doi:10.1080/10549811.2021.1933536.
  39. ↑ Santika, Truly; Wilson, Kerrie; Budiharta, Sugeng; Kusworo, Ahmad; Meijaard, Erik; Law, Elizabeth; Friedman, Rachel; Hutabarat, Joseph; Indrawan, Tito (2019). "Heterogeneous impacts of community forestry on forest conservation and poverty alleviation: Evidence from Indonesia". People and Nature: 204–219. doi:10.1002/pan3.25.


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