Course:ARST573/Archives – History (Early Modern)

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Early modern archives, both as a place and as the records themselves, date from the 15th-18th century. The period can be more precisely dated from the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the French Revolution in 1789. However, the history of archives and their developments are not so cleanly defined, with many cause and effects playing important roles in new focuses and methodologies that emerged across the world in both administrative and religious archives during this time period.

For reasons of language barrier and the sheer magnitude of information, focus is placed upon European archival developments with a brief coverage of Chinese practices. Although each country followed its own path in the process of developing record keeping and archival methods, the majority of archival traditions originate from Western Civilization, making a European focus practical.

Map of Europe, 1570-1609

Pre-Early Modern Period

See also: Course:ARST573/Archives – History (Ancient) and Course:ARST573/Archives – History (Medieval)

Prior to the early modern period, medieval archives established much of the ground work for future archival advances. The practice of systematic keeping of records began to extend into many European regions, including England and Italy. Many such systems housed and maintained registers of guilds, court rolls, registrations of deeds and titles, charters, records of elections, by-laws, etc.[1]

The Late Middle Ages (14th and 15th centuries) witnessed the emergence of archival institutions at the local and national levels across Western Europe, in addition to a growing concern of the systematic control of these archives.[2] In Italy the idea of liber civitatis was introduced, and the combination of establishing a liber civitatis and what today would be called a record keeping system, were the first steps towards the creation of city archives prior to the early modern period.[3]

Key Developments

The early modern period is marked with the widespread concentration of archives in central repositories and the introduction of specialized archivists and staff to order and preserve records across Western Europe.[4] Many of the developments brought about in this time period were due to the birth of "administrative monarchies" which resulted in a growth in size and importance of administrative records.[4] Due to this expansion, specialists were needed with the skills to arrange, manage, and describe archives, while new methodologies in the form of indexes, registers, and catalogues were introduced throughout Europe.

In addition to improved management of administrative records, religious archives experienced an advancement in physical control with the establishment of new institutions and the altering of existing ones to adapt with the quickly changing religious climate of the period. While the Catholics, Jews, and Jesuits experienced a period of thriving development, the Church of England underwent a period of disorder that reflected the country's current state of administrative record control.

In comparison to the European countries, Chinese archival practices offer an interesting view at the manner in which the country not only adopted new archival strategies, but also built upon the methods and developments of prior dynasties.

Developments by Region

Examining archival practices and developments by region, it becomes more apparent how each area transformed over the centuries along differing courses. Particularly, the comparison of successful record keeping of continental Europe to England is noteworthy, as are the many models and methods Switzerland experimented with in contrast to the other regions.

Italy

See also: Roman Catholic Church

Italian cities underwent a significant record keeping transformation during the early modern period. While previously citizens had held the right to request a search of the registers or use the records for their own defense, with the emergence of lords, princes, and kings as ruling bodies in city governments, secrecy became the norm.[5] Furthermore, in the earliest part of this period, new institutions, methodologies, and personnel emerged as a result of the improved management of archives.[6]

With improvements being made to government administration across the Italian city-states, larger quantities of records were being created, thus resulting in the need for institutions to document and manage these records.[7] However, very little information is known about 15th century Italian archives and how they operated. It is understood that the archives as records were extremely scattered geographically, causing consolidation of records to occur at a very slow pace.[8] For example, the records documenting the administrative activities of Florence were stored in numerous repositories, "reflecting the variety of state bodies involved in diplomatic activity."[9]

Venice

The Republic of Venice has a renowned history for its archival efforts, yet it was a city in a time of secrecy that was spurred further by the elites who ran and organized the archives due to their access to political information.[10] For Venice the archive as an institution stood as a symbol and instrument of the government's "efficiency and omniscience," described as "the heart of the state."[10]

Doge's Palace - Venice, Italy

The immense growth of the Venetian archive experienced during the early modern period was a result of the checks and balances of Republican politics that required the constant duplication of records.[11] Similar to other early modern cities, there was little physical separation between place of creation and place of storage, therefore all of Venice's records were kept in separate offices pertaining to their creators, i.e. buildings scattered across the city.[12] Only the most important records belonging to the main deliberative councils were housed in several repositories within the Ducal Palace; the Ducal Chancery, the Secret Chancery, the Council of Ten, and the Cancelleria inferiore.[12] Each more secretive than the prior, with the Cancelleria inferiore housing the records of the doge and deceased notaries.[12]

The Chanceries kept a steady staff of approximately 80 individuals, each of which assisted in the management of the archives.[13] One of their primary duties was registering, a process that consisted of transcribing all decisions on parchment in wood-and leather-bound registers.[13]This practice held an elevated importance in Venetian society because it functioned as a form of conservation, reducing frequent use of the original documents and preserving memory, a critical part to Venice's antiquity and proof of its wisdom and stability.[13] In addition to registering, the archive staff used an inventory, which was first compiled in 1669 by secretary Antonio di Negri.[13] Little else is known about the record keeping system developed by the Venetians.

Castillo de Simancas - Valladolid, Spain

Spain

Most noteworthy in Spain was the establishment of the precursor to a "national archives" in 1540, the Archivo de Simancas in the Castle of Simancas.[4] Started by Charles V and completed by his son Phillip II, the archive was distinguished for preserving the majority of records produced by government agencies of the Spanish monarchy since the time of the Catholic Monarchs in 1475.[14] Here in the Province of Valladolid, Spain, Castilian Crown records from councils, courts, chanceries, secretaries, treasuries, etc. were collected, and in 1588 "internal regulation" of the archive was implemented with the document, Instruccion para el Gobierno del Archivo de Simancas.[4] Most renowned was the archive's dedication to the creation of inventories, frequently devoting their entire staff to the task.[15]

England

See also: Church of England

The development of archival practices in early modern England began slowly, the late 15th century being burdened with the Wars of the Roses which hindered any sort of methodical cataloging and preservation of records.[16] It became common practice during the Tudor reign for each administrative body to devise its own record keeping system, ultimately creating chaos.[17]

During the reign of Henry VIII one of the most significant archival events occurred, the Dissolution of the Monasteries which resulted in mass dispersal and destruction of many medieval records.[16] Prior to this point important political and administrative documents had been housed in monasteries across the country, along with England's largest libraries of chronicles, and patristic and scholastic texts. [18] However, the Reformation also brought about a positive impact on the archives. Greater attention was paid to collecting and preserving, which would lead to the expansion of the State Paper Office years later.[19] Reformers avidly gathered charters, chronicles, warrants, and other materials that reflected the medieval and ancient past, a critical aspect they deemed to loosening the papacy's control on the church.[19]

Upon her ascent to the throne in 1558, Elizabeth I directed the Archbishop of Canterbury, Matthew Parker to seek out "forgotten works" and return them to England.[20] In the process of completing his duties, Parker quickly became an enthusiast in English record keeping and was "instrumental in collecting and centralizing England's documentary record."[20] He sought out rare books and papers throughout England and continental Europe that had been dispersed to private persons following the dissolution of the monasteries.[21] In 1575 Elizabeth established the "Office of Her Majesty's Papers and Records for Business of State and Council," which would later become the State Paper Office.[22] However, in its early years the office only acquired those papers that had been confiscated from "attaindered individuals" due to the fact that counselors continued to manage their own papers.[23]

Tower of London

Since the Middle Ages, the Tower of London had been an important record repository, however as England entered into the 15th century, the Tower began to lose prestige and was striped of its responsibilities.[24] Prior to the early modern period the Tower had routinely acquired the Chancery rolls, however in 1499 the last major transfer from the Rolls Estate was made to the Tower.[25] Many attempts were made by the Keepers of the Tower Records to receive the rolls through the issue of royal warrants, however little success was made.[25] Threats of the Exchequer taking over control arose during the mid-16th century, however William Boyer, Keeper of the Tower Records, was able to successfully eliminate the transfer of power.[25]

Tower of London (c.1637-77) by Wenceslas Hollar

In 1601 greater efforts were made to manage the records housed in the Tower of London by Keeper of the Tower Records, William Lambarde. Prior to Lambarde's appointment, a register of records had been created in 1572, however it was insufficient, only recording the number of rolls and bundles from each reign.[26] Lambarde quickly set to work organizing the records in a list by "Severall Titles, Years, Numbers of the Rolls."[26] Not only was his list alphabetical, but under each heading the rolls were listed chronologically.[26] He also created categories for the rolls based on geography and institutions/offices of creation.[26]

Despite the temporary recovery of control and management of the Tower, in 1674 a scandal involving the forgery of records by a clerk plagued the Tower and brought it into decline.[25] In 1704 an inspection was made of the Tower which resulted in the discovery of "confused heaps" of records lying under a "faulty repair of the roof" in the White Tower.[27] Conditions worsened further in the Tower with the storage of gunpowder directly under the archives in the White Tower which originally numbered at 12,000 barrels.[28] The problem persisted into the late 19th century, however luckily when a fire broke out in 1885 the records had already been evacuated.[29]

State Paper Office

James I's reign witnessed a growth in the archives with new duties and authority granted to the State Paper Office to collect, preserve, and index records. Established in 1578 by Elizabeth I, the State Paper Office's primary role was to act as an archive for the crown's Secretaries of State.[17] During its early years of development the State Paper Office consisted of a "diffused document storage regime" employed by the English government.[17] Little effort was made by Secretaries of State to centralize the voluminous records produced, often resorting to transferring uncatalogued records to the Tower of London, the Rolls Chapel, or Westminster Abbey.[17] However, over the course of Elizabeth's and James' reigns, the significance of collecting and cataloguing records of state importance grew in recognition with elite counselors.[19] Their concern expanded with the implementation of plans involving individuals "traveling throughout the realm to seek rare and obscure texts, transcribing copies of contemporary and historical documents, asserting systematic order over their own papers, and cataloging neglected troves in London and Westminster."[19]

One such influential figure in the improvement of the State Paper Office was Thomas Wilson, Keeper of the State Paper Office in the early 1600s, who expanded upon Arthur Agarde's methods and created a catalogue system that divided the records of foreign diplomacy geographically and then chronologically.[30] While prior to Wilson, steps had been taken by Agarde, the Deputy Chamberlain of the Exchequer, to impose order on "lost and festering records," Wilson took a new approach in handling incoming records.[31] Under each heading he recorded the number of books and provided a brief description, totaling approximately 150 books and dozens of cupboards.[30] During Wilson's time, the State Paper Office became an "organized and efficient archive capable of pursuing and absorbing an ever-expanding volume of textual materials, ensuring that the paperwork generated by England’s political engine flowed into an orderly archive."[31]

France

Entering into the early modern period, the Trésor des Chartes adjoining the Sainte-Chapelle was the main archive in France, established in the 12th century by a greffe from Philip Augustus.[32] For decades the archives sat in great disorder, with an inventory finally taken in 1500, 26 years after Louis XI had made the request.[33] During the administration of Jean Budé from 1525-1538, the archives were described as being in a state of chaos.[33] A second attempt was made in 1539 to bring order to the archives due to a lack of inventory, illegibility of old inventories, etc., however it resulted in failure.[33]

Hope was brought to the royal archives in 1562 with the appointment of Jean du Tillet by Francis II to reorganize the archives.[33] At the time Tillet also held the position of "keeper of the parlementary greffe."[33] However, Tillet failed, ultimately making matters worse with his ransacking of the archives.[33]

Despite numerous attempts at reform, in 1568 the Trésor des Chartes became a "dead archive" when Michel de l'Hôpital, a French statesman, created the Garde des Chartes for his chancery.[32] From 1562 to 1598, France was plagued with the French Wars of Religion (civil wars) and towards the conclusion of these wars the Trésor des Chartes was passed to the procureur général (Attorney General).[32] At the time of this transfer, Pierre Pithou became the first "historian of these archives."[32]

Switzerland

For the Swiss, the early modern period was a time of archival growth due to an increased gathering of documents with the recognition that "knowledge was essential for maintaining the political order and their place within it."[34] In the 15th century, archival inventories were utilized in Lucerne, Switzerland in the forms of lists of documents that included copies of the more important charters, while the charters themselves were stored in numerous locations around the city with the most important housed in the Wasserturn, a special treasury in the middle of the Reuss River.[35] The storage of records at Wasserturn was comprised of nine boxes and two cabinets, with the intention to protect the charters from fire and scrutiny. [35] The remaining records consisting of town council minutes and dossiers were housed in the Lucerne chancery and in 1534 the fist systematic index was applied to those documents.[36] The records were arranged in labeled boxes, with each box corresponding to a specific subject or correspondent.[36] This system was coined by Peter Ruck as the ideal-topographical model and was a powerful new way of organizing and cataloging documents that mapped "Swiss affairs onto the large secular and spiritual hierarchies."[34]

Reuss River in Lucerne, Switzerland

Following, in the mid-16th to 18th century Switzerland experienced "waves of reorganization" in archives and the abandonment of the ideal-topographical model in favor of indexing and string strategies that focused on the state.[34] 1577 witnessed the first use of "signatures" as box and series identifies, introduced by chancellor Renward Cysat.[37] His initially utilized letters of the alphabet, however quickly adopted the integration of numbers to create more abstract signs.[37]

In 1698, archival organization changed again in Lucerne with the introduction of a taxonomic system and the separation of historically significant records from administrative records into their respective Altes Archiv and Neues Archiv.[38] The new taxonomic logic relied heavily on the "systematic division and subdivision of categories, which allowed each individual document (or even passages within a document) to be both indexed and cross-referenced independently of the document's physical location."[38] This was a break through in archival methodology in Switzerland and variations on this technique appeared across the country.[39]

As archives grew, a problem arose that has remained present within the archival practice ever since, the issue of not all records being accessible because those archives that were inventoried were not a representation of the entire whole of the archives, i.e. a backlog existed.[15] By 1784, a report was made describing the unwieldy amount of records present in the archives, explaining that "the immensity and variety of inventories, depending on each period and the various methods that were used then, makes them very obscure and confused on account of the different categories which they contain; so that…it would be extremely difficult, and indeed practically impossible, to find something that was needed.’’[15]

China

The management of records and establishment of institutions to house and preserve these records was an important element to a successful government during the Ming and Ch'ing (Qing) dynasties. Governing for almost three centuries, from 1644 to 1912, the Ch'ing dynasty was heavily influenced by the Ming dynasty with its use of the "routine system" for record keeping.[40] In this system incoming memorials had to pass through inspection at numerous offices before receiving the "imperial rescript" from the emperor.[40] From that point, several copies were made, including the "yellow summary," information copies, and a copy for the Record Book of Palace Memorials and the Monthly Record Book of Palace Memorials.[41] Once the emperor approved the memorial and all necessary copies were made of the record, it would be published to the public to ensure that "government operations would be open to scrutiny of many, militating against misuse of government to support private interest."[40] Over the course of the Ch'ing dynasty, tens of thousands of these Palace Memorials were preserved within the archives.[42]

Emperor Yongzheng

During the rule of the third Ch'ing emperor, Yung-cheng/Yongzheng (1722-1735), the Grand Council was founded to manage records with the use of registers and the Sui-shou teng-chi (SSTC).[43] The Grand Council archives largely stored registers of documents logged out to other offices, records on Mongol, Tibet, and Russian relations, records dealing with rebel suppression, and much more.[43] The SSTC, established by emperor Yongzheng, was a document survey that recorded document traffic at the Grand Council, as well as the events recorded by the council.[44] Its entries were highly legible, written in clear calligraphy, and were "emperor centered," meaning the dates recorded in the SSTC were based on the days documents were received at court and "rescripted" by the emperor.[43] Great importance was placed on the successful creation of SSTC entries in order to manage China's records, therefore only Chinese clerks, not Mongol or Manchu, with "chin-shih degrees" were allowed to compile the SSTC, a position that ranked high in prestige.[45]

Upon succeeding to the throne, emperor Yongzheng, notably issued the imperial "edict of KHsi" which “required that all palace memorials of the K’ang-his and Yung-cheng reigns be returned to Peking,” modern day Beijing, and stored in the Palace Archives.[46] In addition to the Grand Council and Palace Archives, a reference collection of high importance was located in the Military Archives Office, which only the Grand Councilors and their subordinate staffs were allowed to access.[47]

Major Religious Institutions

See also: Course:ARST573/Faith Based Archives

Archival developments occurred throughout the course of the early modern period not only in an administrative context, but also in many religious institutions. Examining the record keeping practices of these organizations alongside the countries of their origin enlightens one to the similarities and differences in archival methods due to the differing control and power executed on the creation and storage of records. For some of the religious institutions examined, they functioned independently of the ruling government power, allowing them to develop separately, for the 15th-18th centuries were a significant period of growth for many religious archives.

Society of Jesus

Of the more prominent religious institutions to actively house and preserve records were the Jesuits of the Society of Jesus. The system that they developed closely mirrored their own Jesuit bureaucracy and although grand plans were made to provide easy access to records for users at all hierarchical levels, more often than not, the Jesuits faced issues of misplaced and lost documents.[48]

Despite their shortcomings, the Jesuit archives were a source of information sought by not only Jesuit scholars, but Catholics and Protestants as well. Interestingly, the idea of a central archive was never a concept envisioned by the society as they typically stored records in numerous repositories at different locations.[49] What their goal did consist of was the intention to create an archival network that "presupposes a geographical organization of administration based, in turn on a hierarchy of interdependent and subordinate institutions which clearly specified areas of responsibility."[50] There was special attention paid to the balance between centralizing and decentralizing documents in the Jesuit's efforts.[50] Reflecting their institution's organization, the Jesuit archival network determined what was to be stored where based on the creator, purpose of creation, and relevant office for which the documents pertained.[50] Furthermore, every level of the institution was expected to have a repository, this included all establishments at each province, as well as the Roman Curia.[50] High expectations were set by the Society of Jesus, unfortunately their implementation of these plans remained far from ideal.

Yet, despite their drawbacks, scholars were increasingly attracted to the order's repositories due to the immense volume of records they generated and the rigor by which the Jesuits organized and stored these documents. A pillar of Jesuit governance which translated to the management of the archives, was the existence of a paper-based administration.[51] As the Society of Jesus expanded across the globe, paper records grew in importance as a linkage of social cohesion holding the order together. Documents were frequently lent and borrowed between repositories and important original documents of varying content and origin were sent to provincial archives for housing.[52] One such example was the regular transfer of records from the college of Brünn in Bohemia to the provincial archive in Prague.[52]

Roman Catholic Church

Upon entering into the early modern period, the Roman Catholic Church had recently endured the Great Schism lasting 1378-1417, which not only created two popes, but also two archives: the archives of the Roman Obedience and the archives of the Avignon Obedience.[53] With the conclusion of the schism and the return of power to a single pope located in Rome, the Avignon archives were slowly transferred to the Vatican during the mid-15th century and housed in Castel Sant'Angelo.[54] However, not all of the records were transferred, and in 1566 a papal commissioner traveled to Avignon to acquire the remaining 500 manuscripts, yet was unsuccessful due to strong local opposition.[54] It took almost three centuries to eventually acquire the remaining records in Avignon, the last returning in 1738.[55]

Castel et pont Sant'Angelo - Rome, Italy

Following the common papal custom to house records "either in places thought to be safe for religious reasons, such as the Confession of Saint Peter, or in strongly defended places like the Turris Chartularia," Pope Sixtus IV moved the most valuable papal records in Rome to the Castel Sant’Angelo.[56] This relocation conducted at the end of the 15th century adhered closely to the custom, for Castel Sant’Angelo was “a fortress protected by the sword of Michael Archangel.”[56] Here the archives were stored in variously colored sacks inside great iron trunks located beneath the statue of Michael in the circular room above the Hall of Justice in Castel Sant’Angelo.[56] During Pope Paul III’s time, walnut cupboards were built within the room to function as an additional storage space for the archives.[57]

While the most valuable records, such as those containing privileges of the Church, records of claims, etc., where housed in Castel Sant'Angelo, Pope Pius IV announced during the Council of Trent that plans were to be made to create a central Vatican Archives.[58] However, not until Pope Paul V's time did the archives begin to take shape with the construction of the main part of the present archives in 1610.[59] The first record transfers to the newly established archives occurred in December of 1611, while in early 1612 the first custodian was appointed.[59] Over the first half of the 17th century numerous transfers of records were made to the archives from the Secretariat of State, the Apostolic Camera, Castel Sant'Angelo, etc.[59] Materials housed in the Vatican Archives included approximately 1,700 volumes from the papacies of Gregory VII, Innocent III, John XXII, Sixtus IV, Martin V, Leo X, etc., the "secret" letters from the Apostolic Secretariat, and Secretariat of State volumes.[60] Following 1656, no significantly large transfers were made to the archives for a century and a half with the exception of the return of the Avignon records.[55]

Jewish Archives

The 16th and 17th centuries witnessed an increased interest in preserving Jewish records in numerous countries across the world, most specifically in locations where expulsion of Jews had ceased or occurred very little.[61] For many Jewish communities the task of preserving birth, death, and marriage records had been their own responsibility for centuries.[61] And in many cases where this occurred, it was found that their systems of organization "were largely the same as those prevailing in those [state] archives," because in these instances, "the civil authorities determined the filing system of the Jewish communities because of the legal importance of the documents and also to facilitate the supervision of the community administration, the collection of taxes, etc.”[61] Furthermore, Jewish communities began recording information in pinkas (registers) which developed into auxiliary pinkasim for special purposes.[61] Information that began to be recorded included “statutes and regulations governing the community, names of community leaders and officials, minutes of meetings," copies of notes, letters, and applications submitted to the community's board and Jewish court decisions.[61]

Although a large amount of Jewish community records were preserved in a more orderly fashion during this period, relocations of archives occurred frequently due to Jewish expulsion and the breaking up of communities.[61] For example, many Jewish records were returned to Amsterdam from Brazil following the Portuguese reconquest of the region in 1654.[62] Many archives were also destroyed in Poland and Russia due to prosecution, fires, negligence, etc.[63] Countries with the strongest and most well organized and developed Jewish community archives between the 17th and late 18th centuries were Italy, Austria, Great Britain, Hungary, Germany, Czechoslovakia, and the United States.[61]

Church of England

At the start of the early modern period, records preserved by the Church of England were those of bishops and archdeacons.[64] However, change occurred in the 16th century when canon law, which had been the foundation of authority in the church, was replaced with reformed doctrines following the break from the papacy.[64] This was accompanied with the Act of Dispensation (Peter's Pence Act) of 1534, which abolished papal power in England with the transfer of power to dispense and license from the Pope to the joint administration of the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Lord Chancellor.[65] This resulted in the establishment of the Faculty Office which created muniment books/registers that chronologically recorded dispensations of plurality, non-residence, bastardy and deformity that impacted ordination, marriage licenses, etc.[65]

Once regular record keeping was established following the transfer of power, chronological registers were maintained of administrative acts performed by bishops thought worthy of permanent preservation.[66] In larger dioceses (York, Lincoln, Salisbury, etc.) these registers were divided into specialized sections, maintained until the end of the episcopate and bound together in a single cover.[66] Furthermore, in areas with a “long-standing, strongly administered, registry office,” this office frequently functioned as a powerful influence in shaping the form and creation of records.[67] One such example being Exeter where a number of series of register books were managed.[67]

Excise Office, Broad Street, 1810

For those records housed in cathedral and collegiate churches and episcopal archives, the majority were of administrative origins and in the forms of leases and lease books, court rolls and account rolls, general estate correspondence, etc.[68] Meanwhile, records resulting from the secular duties and jurisdiction of bishops were housed exclusively in the episcopal archives of Durham and Ely.[68]

Between 1649-1660, the Church of England suffered greatly under the Interregnum between England, Scotland, and Ireland. During this period records housed at episcopal and capitular estates were seized by the government, relocated to a registry in Gurney House in London, and subsequently relocated again to the Excise Office in Broad Street.[69] If records of “spiritualties,” meaning those “produced by the exercise of the spiritual powers of the ecclesiastical authorities," were stored with a bishop who was a known enemy of the régime or a former royal servant and therefore imprisoned, the records would be impounded.[69] Due to this massive relocation of church records and the fact that few diocesan registries escaped losses, registers of ordination subscription and institution are often incomplete for the 17th century.[69] In 1662 orders were given by Parliament to sort out and return all confiscated records to their place of origin.[69] This task was to be carried out in Lambeth where the records could be sorted, however many failed to be returned or were lost.[69]

End of Early Modern Period

French Revolution, Storming of the Bastille

With the conclusion of the early modern period came one of the most significant archival events in the western tradition, the French Revolution. On June 25, 1794, the French Law of 7 Messier Year II was passed, granting for the first time citizens the right to access public records.[70] This later progressed into the acceptance of archival research as a civic right, even in the more conservative countries like the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia.[70]

Furthermore, the Napoleonic wars contributed to the abolishment of administrative structures in countries across Europe, resulting in the mass transition of archival control under new government power.[70] For the first time, historical significance of records became a major quality and justification for preservation, as citizens began to acknowledge a sense of nationalism.[70] Archival practices also began to extend across the Pacific Ocean to the recently established United States and Canada, developing into uniquely North American archival practices of the Late Modern period.

With the resulting growth and change in record care and perception following the end of the early modern period, it became evident that special schools were needed in order to train individuals with the skills to read and interpret old texts and understand old languages.[70] The first school of this type was established in 1811 in Naples, Italy, the Scuola del Grande Archivio, laying the groundwork for future academic institutions and archival developments.[70]

See Also

References

  1. ↑ Eric Ketelaar, "Records Out and Archives In: Early Modern Cities as Creators of Records and as Communities of Archives," Archival Science 10 (2010): 204, accessed February 15, 2015, doi: 10.1007/s10502-010-9123-0.
  2. ↑ M.T. Clanchy, "'Tenacious Letters': Archives and Memory in the Middle Ages," Archivaria 11 (Winter, 1980/81): 125, accessed April 2, 2015.
  3. ↑ Ketelaar, "Records Out and Archives In," 205.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Michel Duchein, "The History of European Archives and the Development of the Archival Profession in Europe," American Archivist 55 (Winter, 1992): 16.
  5. ↑ Ketelaar, "Records Out and Archives In," 206.
  6. ↑ Paul Marcus Dover, "Deciphering the Diplomatic Archives of Fifteenth-Centry Italy," Archival Science 7 (2007): 297, accessed March 3, 2015, doi: 10.1007/s10502-008-9065-y.
  7. ↑ Ibid, 298.
  8. ↑ Ibid, 300.
  9. ↑ Ibid, 301.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Filippo De Vivo, “Ordering the archive in early modern Venice (1400-1650),” Archival Science 10 (2010): 232, accessed February 15, 2015, doi: 10.1007/s10502-010-9122-1.
  11. ↑ Ibid, 234.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Ibid, 235.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Ibid, 236.
  14. ↑ Archivo General de Simancas, accessed April 3, 2015, http://www.mecd.gob.es/cultura-mecd/areas-cultura/archivos/mc/archivos/ags/presentacion.html.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Randolph C. Head, "Mirroring Governance: Archives, Inventories and Political Knowledge in Early Modern Switzerland and Europe," Archival Science 7 (2007): 320, accessed March 3, 2015, doi: 10.1007/s10502-008-9062-1.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Nicholas Popper, “From Abbey to Archive: Managing Texts and Records in Early Modern England,” Archival Science 10 (2010): 249, accessed February 15, 2015, doi:10.1007/s10502-010-9128-8.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Ibid, 250. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Popper, 250" defined multiple times with different content
  18. ↑ Ibid, 251-252.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Ibid, 251.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Ibid, 254.
  21. ↑ Ibid, 254-255.
  22. ↑ Ibid, 255-256.
  23. ↑ Ibid, 256.
  24. ↑ Elizabeth M. Hallam, "The Tower of London as a Record Office," Archives 14, no. 61 (Spring, 1979): 3 & 5, accessed February 16, 2015.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Ibid, 6. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hallam, 6" defined multiple times with different content
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Popper, "From Abbey to Archive," 259.
  27. ↑ Hallam, "The Tower of London as a Record Office," 7.
  28. ↑ Ibid, 8.
  29. ↑ Elizabeth M. Hallam, "Nine Centuries of Keeping the Public Records," in The Records of the Nation: the Public Record Office, 1838-1988, the British Record Society, 1888-1988, ed. G.H. Martin & P. Spufford (Boydell Press, 1990), 34.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Popper, "From Abbey to Archive," 261.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Ibid, 262.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Donald Kelly, "The Archives and History: Jean du Tillet Makes in Inventory of History," in Foundations of Modern Historical Scholarship: Language, Law, and History in the French Renaissance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 218.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 Ibid, 219.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Randolph C. Head, “Knowing Like a State: The Transformation of Political Knowledge in Swiss archives, 1450-1770,” Journal of Modern History 75, no. 4 (December 2003): 746, accessed February 17, 2015, doi: 10.1086/383353.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Head, "Mirroring Governance," 321.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Ibid, 322.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Ibid, 323.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Ibid, 324.
  39. ↑ Ibid, 326.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Beatrice S. Bartlett, “Ch'ing Palace Memorials in the Archives of the National Palace Museum,” National Palace Museum Bulletin 13, no. 6 (Jan.–Feb. 1979): 2.
  41. ↑ Ibid, 2 & 8.
  42. ↑ Beatrice S. Bartlett, “Imperial Notations on Ch’ing Official Documents in the Ch’ien­-lung (1736­1795) and Chia-ch’ing (1796-1820) Reigns,” National Palace Museum Bulletin 7, no. 2 (May–June 1972): 2.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Beatrice S. Bartlett, “Ch’ing Documents in the National Palace Museum Archives, Part One: Document Registers: The Sui­shou teng-chi,” National Palace Museum Bulletin 10, no. 4 (Sept.–Oct. 1975): 2.
  44. ↑ Ibid, 1 & 15.
  45. ↑ Ibid, 13.
  46. ↑ Bartlett, “Ch'ing Palace Memorials in the Archives of the National Palace Museum,” 9-10.
  47. ↑ Ibid, 8.
  48. ↑ Markus Friedrich, “Archives as networks: the geography of record-keeping in the Society of Jesus (1540-1773),” Archival Science 10 (2010): 285, accessed February 15, 2015, doi: 10.1007/s10502-010-9125-y.
  49. ↑ Ibid, 286.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 Ibid, 287.
  51. ↑ Ibid, 280.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Ibid, 289.
  53. ↑ Maria Luisa Ambrosini and Mary Wills, The Secret Archives of the Vatican (United States: Barnes & Noble Publishing, 1996), 113.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Ibid, 134.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Leonard E. Boyle, A Survey of the Vatican Archives and of its Medieval Holdings (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 2001), 11. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Boyle, 11" defined multiple times with different content
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 Ambrosini and Wills, The Secret Archives of the Vatican, 151.
  57. ↑ Ibid, 152.
  58. ↑ Boyle, A Survey of the Vatican Archives and of its Medieval Holdings, 9.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Ibid, 10.
  60. ↑ Ibid, 10-11.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 61.4 61.5 61.6 Hanoch Reviv, et al, "Archives," in Encyclopaedia Judaica, ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik, 2nd ed. vol. 2 (Detroit: Macmillan Reference, 2007): 406, http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX2587501260&v=2.1&u=ubcolumbia&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&authCount=1#MODERN_TIMES
  62. ↑ Ibid, 406-407.
  63. ↑ Ibid, 407.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Dorothy M. Owen, The Records of the Established Church in England: Excluding Parochial Records (London: British Records Association, 1970), 8.
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Ibid, 51.
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Ibid, 10.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Ibid, 11.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Ibid, 12.
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 69.4 Ibid, 13.
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3 70.4 70.5 Duchein, "The History of European Archives and the Development of the Archival Profession in Europe," 17.
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