The conservation benefits of green infrastructure on pollinator biodiversity

From UBC Wiki

Introduction: Key concepts and the current state of pollinator biodiversity

Bee on lavender flower

Conservation biology is a discipline that aims to protect and preserve the variety of life in Earth’s ecosystems.[1] These natural systems are defined by dynamic and complex communities of living organisms interacting with their physical environment.[2] Ecosystems depend on biodiversity in order to provide services such as water filtration, climate regulation, and pollination.[3] However, human activities pose significant threats to ecosystems and to the species that live in them.[2] Pollinators, such as bees, butterflies, and birds, normally play a crucial role in maintaining the health and productivity of ecosystems.[4] Yet, pollinator decline has become a worldwide concern, with over 40 percent of insect pollinators globally highly threatened.[5] Of the 4000 remaining species of pollinators, more than half are predicted to decline in years to come.[6] This loss can have cascading effects on entire ecosystems, creating declines in both plant and pollinator populations.[7]

Urbanization has resulted in the fragmentation and loss of natural habitats, leading to lower levels of pollinator diversity and abundance compared to rural areas.[7] The use of pesticides and introduction of invasive species also contribute to the rapid decline of pollinator populations in both urban and rural settings.[7] Climate change has become a growing threat, as changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can affect the timing of flowering and pollinator emergence, which can lead to mismatches between plants and pollinators.[6]

A multifaceted approach, including habitat restoration, integrated pest management, and citizen science is necessary to promote effective conservation.[7] Green infrastructure is a particularly versatile mechanism that can employ many of these techniques for protecting and restoring pollinator biodiversity in both urban and rural environments.

Rural Green Infrastructure and Pollinators

Sweet pea plant with flowers and fruits. Pollination must occur for flowers to develop into the fruits (peas).
A bulldozer clearing forest
Forest being cleared and converted for agricultural use

Issues

Pollination is recognized as a valuable ecosystem service that provides significant benefits to humans.[8] This service is of particular interest in rural agricultural settings because insects pollinate 75% of crop species[9] and support 35% of global crop production,[10] thus increasing yields and contributing to food security.[11] Some estimates claim that an absence of animal pollination could cause an 8% decrease in agricultural production.[12] Despite the importance of pollination, contemporary practices continue to have negative effects on its provision.[13] It has been well-documented that land use conversion and intensive farming have frequent negative impacts on local biodiversity as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation.[14] Pollinator decline in rural agricultural settings has also been attributed to pesticides (which directly and indirectly harm populations), climate change, and monocropping (which can shorten plant flowering periods in local areas).[9] Pollinator losses can lead to systemic issues, as decreased food production encourages the creation of additional agricultural land, leading to further deterioration of pollinator habitat.[12]

Hedgerows that divide fields can provide important pollinator habitat

Conservation Methods

Studies have shown that green infrastructure such as wild vegetation, semi-natural areas, and floral patches can ensure pollination[11][15] and encourage related ecosystem services like pest control.[11] These landscape elements provide hosts, pollen, and nectar for beneficial insects.[11] They are especially effective when plant structural diversity and species diversity are encouraged.[11][13] Although farmers may hesitate to relinquish crop area for green infrastructure, some linear landscape elements such as hedgerows, field boundaries and flower strips are generally considered acceptable.[11][13]

Case Study – Rural Agriculture

As of 2012, there were 477,000 km of hedgerows reported in British countrysides.[16] A 2014 study in Southern England analyzed the value of these hedgerows for sustainable agriculture.[17] Sixteen sites were studied, with an even split of “good” and “poor” quality hedgerows as determined by plant species diversity and structural integrity.[17] Observational data on the abundance of bees and hoverflies revealed that more of these pollinators were present closer to the hedgerows than farther away.[17] This phenomenon was pronounced in sites that had less surrounding semi-natural habitat which led the authors to suggest these hedgerows were especially beneficial in more intensively farmed landscapes.[17] The quality of the hedgerow had a greater impact on some species than on others. It was also shown that different types of plants – including trees, woody shrubs, and floral understory – supported different types of pollinators.[17]

Urban Green Infrastructure and Pollinators

Community gardens contribute to greenspace heterogeneity

Issues

Anthropogenic changes to urban areas can affect organisms directly (habitat modification, fragmentation) and indirectly (altered temperatures, artificial light, noise, and air pollution).[18] Development pressures can remove historical pollinator habitat, resulting in urban sprawl that may negatively affect pollinator biodiversity.[18] Mismanagement of urban trees (essential habitats for pollinators) is also a problem.[19] When flowering trees are not available in abundance, it can result in higher competition in the floral landscapes that specialized pollinators may depend on.[19] The urban heat island effect can also cause habitat scarcity, water stress, and heat stress to organisms within urban centers.[18] Humans in urban areas control plant diversity and choose plants that appeal to them regardless of what may be best for pollinators. Poor habitat choices can enhance unfavorable results for some pollinators who require localized native species.[18]

Urban Greenspaces

Effectively planned urban green infrastructure can provide more varied pollinator habitats, especially compared to traditional garden flower beds.[20] A heterogeneous combination of elements such as parks, botanical gardens, and ecosystem-managed landscapes can support both the abundance and diversity of these species.[20] Keys to sustainable urban development for pollinators include low-disturbance management, habitat diversity, and landscape heterogeneity.[20] Structures like urban parks, naturescaped backyards, undisturbed lots, green corridors, and gardens are forms of greenspace that can produce varied habitat in cities.[20]

A 2022 study from the United Kingdom demonstrated that sowing small wildflower meadows within private gardens increased pollinator species richness and abundance. In the first year after sowing, there were “on average 111% more bumblebees, 87% more solitary bees, and 85% more solitary wasps” compared with control sites.[21]

Powerline corridors can provide pollinator habitat

Powerline corridors are often overlooked as a source of informal green space within the urban landscape, however, if utilized correctly, these areas can have extensive benefits for pollinator diversity.[22] By leaving areas un-manicured where natural vegetation can take over, these corridors can provide essential habitat.[22] Natural, native grasslands are well suited to pollinators and can add ecological value to these sites.[22]

Management of informal greenspace is a critical factor affecting pollinator abundance in a specific site.[20] When city workers manicure a site, the expected outcome is that pollinator diversity will be negatively affected.[20] Incorporating ecosystem management techniques can significantly help bee populations within urban environments.[20] Sites with better ecosystem management styles will experience higher populations of pollinators.[20]

Riparian areas that wind through cities include important vegetation for urban ecosystems. The high biological diversity in these sites can provide food and reproductive resources for pollinators.[23] Rivers meandering through cities can also help connect different greenspaces throughout the city, adding to a holistic amendment to pollinator diversity and abundance.[23]

Riparian green infrastructure in a city

Supporting Green infrastructure

If qualified stakeholders can accumulate detailed accounts of urban greenspaces, the information can be used to create pollinator conservation niches.[24] For example, figuring out which floral species might attract more generalist pollinators and which times of the year it may be necessary to increase floral nutrient availability can facilitate the creation of suitable habitat.[24]

Native plants are essential sources of food and are important for pollinator biodiversity.[25] Incorporating native tree species into urban ecosystems can significantly develop populations of pollinators, allowing for beneficial relationships between pollinators and trees.[25] Exotic plants can also be important in cultivated areas, like gardens or allotments.[26] Higher floral abundance present in gardens is likely a profound driver in pollinator abundance.[26]

Certain characteristics of urban centers may provide accidental benefits for pollinators.[27] For example, members of the public who engage in gardening practices may add to the high diversity of floral arrangements throughout a city and unknowingly provide habitat in the process.[27]

Pollinators tend to move freely between greenspace based on resource needs within a heterogeneous urban environment.[27] Urban development should encapsulate the benefit of having connected greenspaces with adequate resources for pollinators throughout urban areas.[27] A holistic approach is needed when considering what is best for pollinators in these diverse, complicated urban areas.[26] Cities around the world have adopted a variety of green infrastructure elements to suit disparate contexts.[26]

City in Focus – Singapore

Status of Regional Pollinators

Butterflies, sunbirds, and 133 distinct species of bees have all been found to contribute to the spread of pollen in the Singapore area.[28][29] Of the bees that have been identified, there are four main types: Giant Honey Bee (Apis dorsata), Dwarf Honey Bee (Apis andreniformis), Asian Honey Bee (Apis cerana), and Stingless Bee (Trigona sp.).[30] With no exact rates in population decline or increase available, the country of Singapore used the IUCN Red List Criteria to identify that six of these species were nationally extinct and six others were critically endangered.[29] Furthermore, it was observed that 117 species are still found on a semi-common basis and that 79 of these bee populations are located in urban or semi-urban green spaces in Singapore, such as pocket parks and community rooftop gardens.[29]

Policies and Initiatives

Singapore's growth as a country and city has promoted the expansion of green infrastructure policies. At the 2018 Festival of Biodiversity, numerous projects were announced, and a strict agenda was set for addressing pollinators amidst the increasing effects of climate change.[31] Projects included in the plan will focus on implementing further green infrastructure throughout the country to establish greater habitat availability for regional birds, butterflies, and bees.[31]

Additionally, the number of in-depth studies to visualize and assess the populations of pollinators in Singapore will be heavily increased.[31] This will expand on previously collected data, such as a 2013 study that evaluated the populations of 50 bee species associated with specific flowering plants at seven parks.[32]

Supertree Grove at Gardens by the Bay

Expanded community engagement is also a large part of this initiative. One example of this is the Friends of the Park project which is composed of nine separate communities, each with their own stakeholders and leaders to amplify the positive effects of green spaces in the city.[31] This course of action aims to promote the protection of green space within Singapore and educate the growing population on the importance of regional pollinators and the enhancement of green infrastructure on a local level.[31]

Singapore's policy emphasizes the design of urban landscapes that consider wildlife in general and pollinators specifically. The goal is to design infrastructure that attracts pollinators, but minimizes other wildlife crossover in order to protect both humans and animals.[31]

Indoor gardens and waterfall at Jewel Changi airport

A recent staple of government action in Singapore is educational bee-themed trails, such as those that will be featured in HortPark.[33] At least 20 different species of bees will be included in the program. This initiative aims to inform visitors about the ecosystem services that result from the relationship between green infrastructure elements and pollinator species in Singapore.[31]

Sites of Interest

Singapore is home to a number of architectural landmarks that have been inspired by biophilic design, and these have served as an example on a global scale.[34]

Gardens by the Bay represents the direction that the country is taking to enhance green infrastructure.[35] The park is lined by eighteen Silver Garden SuperTrees, which serve as energy storage systems that enhance the abundance of ecosystem services.[36] Furthermore, a conservatory and numerous planting designs elevate the availability of green space for pollinators in the area and decrease total energy consumption of the facility by 30%.[36]

Singapore's Jewel Changi Airport serves as another icon of the “Green City”.[37] The facility welcomes both travellers and local residents to enjoy its extensive indoor gardens with over 200 hundred plant species and a towering indoor waterfall.[37]

City in Focus – Vancouver

Status of Regional Pollinators

At present, there are few published studies that provide data related to pollinator diversity in the Metro Vancouver Regional District. Those that are available mostly focus on bee species. At least 56 bee species have been observed in the Metro Vancouver area include Apis mellifera, Bombus spp., and Osmia spp.[38] Some species have declined in recent decades, while others have increased. For example, Bombus occidentalis composed 25-30% of local bumble bees in the 1980s but now makes up only 0.7% of bumble bees and is rarely observed in population studies.[39] At the same time, Bombus vosnesenskii has become more prevalent due to range expansion.[40]

Policies and Initiatives

A pollinator meadow in Vancouver

Despite the shortage of local pollinator data, Metro Vancouver and its constituent jurisdictions have engaged in a number of green infrastructure and pollinator-supporting initiatives in recent years.

Metro Vancouver has published an Ecological Health Framework[41] and a green infrastructure policy background document.[42]It also engages the public in supporting pollinators with educational efforts such as Metro Vancouver Regional Parks’ Nature Program Guide.[43]

The City of Vancouver’s policies for supporting biodiversity are frequently paired with recommendations for ecosystem services that decrease infrastructure costs or mitigate climate change.[44] Examples include the Biodiversity Strategy[45], Climate Change Adaptation Strategy[46], and Rain City Strategy.[47] Vancouver has allocated 25 naturalized “pollinator meadow” sites to attract bees, butterflies, and birds while reducing maintenance requirements for parks.[48] The city has also banned the use of pesticides in its green spaces[49] including neonicotinoids that have been specifically shown to harm pollinators.[50]

The City of Surrey has a green infrastructure network that includes more than 2700 hectares of land intended to preserve and connect habitat as part of its Biodiversity Conservation Strategy.[51] Additionally, Surrey has provided comprehensive, educational documents for the public with its Biodiversity Design Guidelines.[52]

Semiahmoo Library Living Wall
Living wall at Semiahmoo Library in Surrey

Government efforts to directly address pollinator biodiversity frequently focus on planting and maintaining pollinator gardens.[53][41] Other suggestions include constructed pollinator boxes, wildlife trees, green roofs, and living walls.[52]

Academic institutions in the region are also engaged in efforts to support pollinators. For example, Simon Fraser University’s Adaptation to Climate Change Team has published multiple policy recommendation documents that promote biodiversity through intentionally designed green infrastructure elements such as gardens, boulevards, and rights of way.[54]

Local non-governmental organizations also support pollinator biodiversity projects. The Vancouver Branch of the Butterflyway Project has created a north-south pollinator corridor connecting the District of North Vancouver to Richmond and is adding more sites throughout the region[55]. The project added 163 native plant patches in 2020 alone. This project provides resources for citizen action and includes recommendations of appropriate native plants. Another community group, the Environmental Youth Alliance also stewards three native wildflower meadows: Copley Community Orchard, Renfrew Ravine, and Strathcona Community Garden.[56]

Green roof on the Vancouver Convention Centre

Sites of Interest

The Semiahmoo Library In Surrey features a green wall with many plants that were selected specifically for bees, butterflies, and hummingbirds.[57] At the time of its construction, it was the largest and most diverse living wall in North America, with over 10,000 plants on its 250 m2 surface.[57]

The Vancouver Convention Centre has a 2.4 ha living roof that includes over 400,000 native grasses and wildflowers.[58] It has also been home to beehives that provide honey for the facility's restaurant.[59]

Oak Meadows Park in Vancouver includes a pollinator garden with a decommissioned telephone booth that has been converted to an insect hotel.[60] Built structures like this may provide beneficial habitat opportunities for some cavity nesting pollinators.[61]

Direction and Action

Canadian Policy Efforts

To combat the negative effects of human activities on pollinator populations, the Canadian government has taken action in recent years to ensure healthy pollinator levels.[62] In particular Health Canada, a governmental body responsible for overseeing national health policy, has banned the use of various neonicotinoid pesticides including clothianidin, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam.[62]

In June of 2021, Infrastructure Canada - Canada's department responsible for the assessment of federal public infrastructure policy[63] - pledged 200 million dollars to the Natural Infrastructure Fund.[64] These funds will be used for the support of various projects across Canada to increase natural design elements and protect biodiversity in Canadian cities.[64] Canada's infrastructure plan also covers a green stream in which 9.2 billion dollars over a 10 year period has been invested in green infrastructure throughout the country.[65]

Current Global Policy

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

Strategies for global policy have grown in recent decades and they continue to become more present in governance. In 2015, the United Nations drafted a plan for 17 Sustainable Development Goals, which focused on increasing sustainability in a number of areas, including social, environmental, and economic change.[66] Specific goals including 9: industry, innovation, and infrastructure[67], and 11: sustainable cities and communities[68] relate to the overlap between pollinators and the implementation of green infrastructure.

Furthermore, a branch of the United Nations, formally called the United Nations Environment Program,[69] directed the development of the Convention on Biological Diversity.[70] This convention represents a multilateral treaty aimed at protecting global biodiversity and it promoted the creation of the International Pollinator Initiative.[70] The plan includes a course of action from 2018-2030, and it incorporates methods of pollinator protection and the sustainable use of various pollination methods.[71] Its goals are essential for the development of a functional relationship between pollinator population health and green infrastructure across the globe as well as on regional and field-based levels.[71]

In 2022, the United Nations Biodiversity Conference, COP 15, centered its resources on goals for reversing the loss of biodiversity. Accrediting necessary policy discussion and decision making for the future, the conference included governments, civilians, organizations, and firms.[72] Pollination, a specialized climate change investment firm, reviewed and participated in the conference, helping to shape the direction of green infrastructure implementation within cities across the globe.[73] Businesses and firms similar to Pollination are becoming increasingly relevant as their work can help direct the actions of people on both an individual and community scale.[74]

Conclusion

Due in part to the poor state of pollinator biodiversity, attention towards green infrastructure has grown significantly in recent years.[75] Primary threats to pollinators include the effects of invasive species, habitat loss, and the continued use of pesticides.[76] These problems must be monitored in order to ensure the efficacy of projects that aim to support biodiversity.[77] Continued adoption of green infrastructure is necessary to mitigate global climate change and land degradation and to preserve healthy ecosystems.

References

  1. ↑ "Why is Biodiversity important". The Royal Society.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Ecosystems". The National Geographic.
  3. ↑ "Ecosystem services". The National Wildlife Foundation.
  4. ↑ "What is green infrastructure?". United States Environmental Protection Agency.
  5. ↑ Kelsey Korpec, Lori Burd. "Pollinators in Peril" (PDF).
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Kopec, Kelsey; Burd, Lori Ann (February 2017). "Pollinators in peril" (PDF). Center for Biological Diversity: 14.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 "USDA ANNUAL STRATEGIC POLLINATOR PRIORITIES REPORT" (PDF). U.S Department of Agriculture. 2023: 50.
  8. ↑ Costanza, Robert; d'Arge, Ralph; de Groot, Rudolf; Farber, Stephen; Grasso, Monica; Hannon, Bruce; Limburg, Karin; Naeem, Shahid; O'Neill, Robert V. (April 1998). "The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital". Ecological Economics. 25: 3–15.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Vanbergen, Adam J. (June 2013). "Threats to an ecosystem service: pressures on pollinators". Frontiers in ecology and the environment. 11.
  10. ↑ IPCC, 2022: Climate Change and Land: IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems. IPCC. 2022.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Rosas-Ramos, Natalia; Baños‐Picón, Laura; Tormos, José; Asís, Josep D. (September 2019). "The complementarity between ecological infrastructure types benefits natural enemies and pollinators in a mediterranean vineyard agroecosystem". Annals of applied biology. 175.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Aizen, Marcelo A.; Garibaldi, Lucas A.; Cunningham, Saul A.; Klein, Alexandra M. (June 2009). "How much does agriculture depend on pollinators? lessons from long-term trends in crop production". Annals of botany. 103.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Li, Pengyao; Kleijn, David; Badenhausser, Isabelle; Zaragoza-Trello, Carlos; Gross, Nicolas; Raemakers, Ivo; Scheper, Jeroen (August 2020). "The relative importance of green infrastructure as refuge habitat for pollinators increases with local land-use intensity". The Journal of applied ecology. 57.
  14. ↑ Stoate, C.; Báldi, A.; Beja, P.; Boatman, N.D.; Herzon, I.; van Doorn, A.; de Snoo, G.R.; Rakosy, L.; Ramwell, C. (October 2009). "Ecological impacts of early 21st century agricultural change in Europe – A review". Journal of environmental management. 91.
  15. ↑ Hevia, Violeta; Carmona, Carlos P.; Azcárate, Francisco M.; Heredia, Roberto; González, José A. (October 2021). "Role of floral strips and semi-natural habitats as enhancers of wild bee functional diversity in intensive agricultural landscapes". Agriculture, ecosystems & environment. 319.
  16. ↑ Norton, L. R.; Maskell, L. C.; Smart, S. S.; Dunbar, M. J.; Emmett, B. A.; Carey, P. D.; Williams, P.; Crowe, A.; Chandler, K.; Scott, W. A.; Wood, C. M. (December 2012). “Measuring stock and change in the GB countryside for policy – key findings and developments from the countryside survey 2007 field survey”. Journal of Environmental Management. 113
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Garratt, Michael P.D.; Senapathi, Deepa; Coston, Duncan J.; Mortimer, Simon R.; Potts, Simon G. (September 2017). "The benefits of hedgerows for pollinators and natural enemies depends on hedge quality and landscape context". Agriculture, ecosystems & environment. 247.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 GRIMM, NANCY B.; FAETH, STANLEY H.; GOLUBIEWSKI, NANCY E.; REDMAN, CHARLES L.; WU, JIANGUO; BAI, XUEMEI; BRIGGS, JOHN M. (Feb. 2008). [DOI: 10.1126/science.1150195 "Global Change and the Ecology of Cities"] Check |url= value (help). Science. 319: pp. 756-760 – via Cab direct. Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Stevenson, Philip C.; Bidartondo, Martin I.; Blackhall-Miles, Robert; Cavagnaro, Timothy R.; Cooper, Amanda; Geslin, Benoît; Koch, Hauke; Lee, Mark A.; Moat, Justin (September 2020). "The state of the world's urban ecosystems: What can we learn from trees, fungi, and bees?". Plants, People, Planet. 2: 482–498 – via Cab direct.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 Tommasi, Désirée; Miro, Alice; Higo, Heather A.; Winston, Mark L. (2004). [doi:10.4039/n04-010 "Bee diversity and abundance in an urban setting"] Check |url= value (help). The Canadian Entomologist. 136: 851–869 – via Science Direct.
  21. ↑ Griffiths-Lee, Janine; Nicholls, Elizabeth; Goulson, Dave (April 2022). "Sown mini-meadows increase pollinator diversity in gardens". Journal of Insect Conservation.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Garfinkel, Megan; Hosler, Sheryl; Whelan, Christopher; Minor, Emily (2022). "Powerline corridors can add ecological value to suburban landscapes when not maintained as lawn". Sustainability. 14: 11 – via Agricultural & Environmental Science Collection.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Zhang, Xin; Zhang, Lixue; Wang, Yixiao; Shao, Ying; Daniels, Benjamin (Dec 2022). [DOI:10.1186/s12302-022-00661-9 "Pollinators and urban riparian vegetation: important contributors to urban diversity conservation"] Check |url= value (help). Environmental Sciences Europe. 34: 8 – via Agricultural & Environmental Science Collection.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Llodrà-Llabrés1, Cariñanos2, Joana1, Paloma2 (August 2022). "Enhancing pollination ecosystem service in urban green areas: An opportunity for the conservation of pollinators". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening Volume 74,. 74: 1–8 – via Elsevier. line feed character in |journal= at position 32 (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Masierowska, Marzena (2021). [DOI: 10.2478/JAS-2021-0024 "Urban Bees Benefit from a Native Forest Species Grown in a City Environment–A Case Study of Geranium Phaeum L."] Check |url= value (help). Journal of Apicultural Science. 65: 331–343 – via Agricultural & Environmental Science Collection.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Baldock, Katherine C, R; Goddard, Mark A; Hicks, Damien M; Kunin, William E; Mitschunas, Nadine; Morse, Helen; Osgathorpe, Lynne M.; Potts, Simon G.; Robertson, Kirsty M. (Mar 2019). "A systems approach reveals urban pollinator hotspots and conservation opportunities". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 3: 363–373 – via Agricultural & Environmental Science Collection.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Baldock, Katherine CR (2020). "Opportunities and threats for pollinator conservation in global towns and cities". Current Opinion in Insect Science. 38: 63–71. line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help)
  28. ↑ "10 Pollinator - attracting plants". National Parks Singapore.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 John Ascher, Zestin Soh, Shao Chui, Eunice Soh, Benjamin Ho, John Lee, Anya Gajanur, Xin Ong (January 14th, 2022). "The bees of Singapore (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila): First comprehensive country checklist and conservation assessment for a Southeast Asian bee fauna" (PDF). Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. 70: 39–64. Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ↑ "Types of Bees". Bees in Singapore Blog.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 31.6 "NParks targets conservation of native pollinators and seed dispersers to enhance forest ecosystem resilience". National Parks - Government of Singapore.
  32. ↑ Zestin Wen, Wen Soh, Robin Wen, Jiang Ngiam (August 2013). "FLOWER-VISITING BEES AND WASPS IN SINGAPORE PARKS (INSECTA: HYMENOPTERA)". Nature in Singapore. 6: 153–172.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ↑ "Bee Trail". Singapore National Parks Board.
  34. ↑ Joson, Jullia (February 13th, 2022). "How Singapore is Pioneering the Way to Creating a Greener Urban Environment". Arch Daily. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  35. ↑ "Sustainability in the Gardens". Gardens by the Bay.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Supertree Grove". Gardens by the Bay.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "Jewel Changi, a green airport". Esther Rico.
  38. ↑ Tommasi, Désirée; Miro, Alice; Higo, Heather A.; Winston, Mark L. (December 2004). "Bee diversity and abundance in an urban setting". Canadian entomologist. 136.
  39. ↑ Wray, Julie; Elle, Elizabeth. "Wild and Managed Pollinators: Current Status and Strategies to Increase Diversity" (PDF). The Pollination Ecology Lab at SFU. Retrieved March 7, 2023.
  40. ↑ Fraser, D.F.; Copley, C.R.; Elle, E; Cannings, R.A. (December 2012). "Changes in the Status and Distribution of the Yellow-faced Bumble Bee (Bombus vosnesenskii) in British Columbia". Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia. 109.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Metro Vancouver's Ecological Health Framework" (PDF). Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  42. ↑ "Metro Facts in Focus - Policy Backgrounder - Green Infrastructure in Metro Vancouver" (PDF). Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  43. ↑ "Nature Program Guide - Spring 2023" (PDF). Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  44. ↑ "Natural climate solutions". Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  45. ↑ Biodiversity Strategy. Vancouver, BC: Vancouver Board of Parks and Recreation. 2016.
  46. ↑ "Climate Change Adaptation Strategy" (PDF). Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  47. ↑ "Rain City Strategy" (PDF). November 5, 2019. Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  48. ↑ "Pollinator meadows".
  49. ↑ "Integrated Pest Management policy".
  50. ↑ Brown, Timothy; Kegley, Susan; Archer, Lisa (2014). GardenersBeware2014: Bee-toxic pesticdes found in “bee-friendly” plants sold at garden centers across the U. S. and Canada. Friends of the Earth Canada. p. 4.
  51. ↑ "Biodiversity Conservation in Surrey". Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 "Biodiversity Design Guidelines". Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  53. ↑ "Support bees and butterflies". Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  54. ↑ "Metro Vancouver 2050: A Mecca of Biodiversity-Led Green Infrastructure" (PDF). SFU Action on Climate Team. April 5, 2019. Retrieved March 7, 2023.
  55. ↑ "Vancouver Butterflyway". Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  56. ↑ "EYA 2021 Impact Report" (PDF). Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 "Biodiversity Design Guidelines - Green Roofs & Walls" (PDF). Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  58. ↑ "Vancouver Convention Centre Expansion Project". Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  59. ↑ "Bees: Vancouver Convention Centre - BC, Canada". October 9, 2009. Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  60. ↑ Gallagher, Margaret (August 8, 2013). "Vancouver buzzing about new insect hotel". CBC/Radio-Canada. Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  61. ↑ Persson, Anna S.; Hederström, Veronica; Ljungkvist, Iris; Nilsson, Lovisa; Kendall, Liam (January 2023). "Citizen science initiatives increase pollinator activity in private gardens and green spaces". Frontiers in sustainable cities. 4.
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 "Pollinator Protection". Government of Canada.
  63. ↑ "Infrastructure Canada". Government of Canada.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 "National Infrastructure Fund". Government of Canada.
  65. ↑ "Investing in Canada: Canada's Long-Term Infrastructure Plan, Long Text Descriptions of Figures 1-4". Government of Canada - Infrastructure Canada.
  66. ↑ "The 17 Goals". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
  67. ↑ "Goal 9". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
  68. ↑ "Goal 11". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
  69. ↑ "UN Environment Programme". United Nations Environment Programme.
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 "Convention on Biological Diversity". Convention on Biological Diversity.
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 "The International Pollinator Initiative" (PDF). Convention on Biological Diversity - The International Pollinator Initiative.
  72. ↑ "UN Biodiversity Conference". United Nations Environment Programme.
  73. ↑ Jane Hutchinson, Laura Waterford. "COP15 agreement in the spotlight – a 'New Deal for Nature'". Pollination Group.
  74. ↑ "Pollination". Pollination.
  75. ↑ "Growth Spurt Predicted for Green Infrastructure Investment". Cities Today.
  76. ↑ "Pollinator Health Concerns". United States Environmental Protection Agency.
  77. ↑ "MIT Uses Algorithm's to Find the World's Greenest Cities". Architectural Digest.
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