Documentation:Open Case Studies/FRST522/2024/Illegal Mining and Timber Logging; Upsurging Threats to Ghana's Forest Reserves

Summary of Case Study

A Map of Ghana

Ghana’s forests are facing unprecedented threats from illegal mining ("galamsey") and unsustainable timber logging which undermine the country’s environmental sustainability and socio-economic development. Over the past three decades, Ghana has experienced significant forest loss, with forest cover declining from 9.9 million hectares in 1990 to 7.9 million hectares in 2020. Illegal mining, fueled by rising gold prices and weak enforcement mechanisms, has degraded forest reserves, polluted water bodies, and displaced communities. Similarly, illegal logging, often facilitated by loopholes in governance and complicit actors within the timber industry, has decimated fragile ecological zones.

Despite initiatives like REDD+ and afforestation programs, limited community involvement, resource constraints, and governance challenges have hindered their effectiveness. The Forest Services Division under the Forestry Commission has implemented zoning strategies to manage forest reserves, but inconsistencies in enforcement and local participation have hampered their success. This paper examines the drivers, impacts, and governance challenges associated with illegal mining and timber logging in Ghana while exploring opportunities for sustainable forest management. Emphasizing the need for community-centered approaches and stronger institutional collaboration, it argues that achieving sustainable forestry practices requires addressing systemic and grassroots-level barriers.

Keywords

Illegal Mining, Timber Logging, Forest reserves, Community Involvement, Sustainable Forest Management

1. Introduction

A video showing how illegal mining and logging threaten Ghana's forests

Ghana is part of the broader context of Africa, which has the highest net loss of forest area globally. Between 2010–2020, Africa's annual forest loss rate

was 3.9 million hectares, contributing significantly to the continent's deforestation figures .

Ghana’s forest resources have been on a steady decline for over a century. The country losses roughly 2% of its forest cover annually. In 2020, the country a forest cover of 7.9 million hectares, representing 35% of Ghana’s landmass . This loss highlights an enduring crisis in forest conservation, with forest reserves making up 16.2% of the country’s land. This alarming rate of deforestation has been compounded by activities like illegal mining and unsustainable logging, which have brought Ghana’s forest reserves under severe threat .

Forests in Ghana play a vital role in supporting over 10% of the population's livelihoods and contribute approximately 6% annually to GDP . They also regulate the climate and provide habitat for biodiversity. Ghana’s forest resources also regulate local climates, stabilize soils, and harbor biodiversity, making their protection crucial for sustainable development. However, the country has lost an estimated 80% of its original forest cover since 1900, with deforestation peaking in 2014 when over 35,000 hectares were cleared in a single year . These alarming trends highlight a longstanding conflict between economic pressures and environmental stewardship.

2. Description

An Elephant at the Mole National Park in Northern Ghana

2.1. Deforestation Drivers and Trends

Deforestation in Ghana is largely driven by the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, particularly illegal logging and mining activities. Illegal timber operations, often facilitated by weak governance structures, have devastated forest reserves . Timber harvesting frequently exceeds approved quotas, and unauthorized chainsaw operators exploit forests without legal permits . This overexploitation directly undermines sustainable forest management strategies, contributing to rapid deforestation across the country.

Illegal mining, commonly referred to as "galamsey," has become another dominant force in forest degradation. Ghana’s rich mineral resources, especially gold, have attracted both large-scale operators and illegal small-scale miners. Galamsey activities, often unregulated and environmentally destructive, have caused significant damage to forests and water bodies . More than 13,000 hectares of forest land are under mining leases, with many illegal operations targeting protected reserves . These activities are concentrated in regions such as Ashanti, Ahafo, and Western, which host nearly 70% of Ghana’s rainforests.

2.2. Illegal Mining

River Pra of Ghana polluted as a result of illegal mining activities

Ghana’s mining sector, particularly gold production, is integral to its economy, making the country the leading gold producer in Africa. However, the rapid expansion of mining activities has come at a significant environmental cost. While formal mining companies often adhere to regulatory requirements, galamsey operations operate outside legal frameworks, exploiting forest resources with little regard for sustainability. These small-scale miners frequently encroach on protected areas, polluting rivers with mercury and cyanide and degrading ecosystems critical for biodiversity conservation .

The scale of galamsey activities is alarming, with an estimated 85% of small-scale miners operating without licenses . These miners often prioritize short-term economic gains over long-term environmental preservation, exacerbating deforestation and threatening forest reserves. Despite efforts to curb these practices, the rise in global gold prices has intensified mining activities over the past two decades and weak enforcement mechanisms have made illegal mining a persistent challenge . Gold Prices have since doubled from 2019 to a high record of more than $2,700 per troy ounce. This has encouraged more small-scale miners to exploit the mining industry leading to many negative environmental impacts. According to the Ghana Water Company, 60% of Ghana’s water bodies are polluted because of illegal mining . "Galamsey" threathens Ghana's forest reserves

2.3. Illegal Logging

The timber industry is another significant contributor to deforestation in Ghana. While it plays an essential role in the national economy as the country’s third-highest foreign exchange earner, unsustainable logging practices undermine its long-term viability . Illegal logging, including activities by both formal companies and informal operators, has devastated fragile forest reserves . Ghana’s domestic energy is about 90% obtained from the forest and further drives the demand for timber higher . This has led to the overexploitation of high-value tree species and the degradation of forest ecosystems essential for climate regulation and biodiversity

In Ghana, timber is said to be illegally sourced if i) timber companies deliberately fell more than the approved yield, ii) forest resource managers collude with timber contractors to exploit unapproved concessions, iii) unregistered timber contractors illegally harvest timber with or without the complicity of forestry officials and stool land owners, and iv) chainsaw milling is carried out with or without the complicity of forestry officials and stool land owners .

3. Tenure arrangements

Land tenure in Ghana is characterized by a complex interplay of customary and statutory systems. Approximately 80% of land in Ghana is under customary tenure, managed by traditional authorities such as chiefs, clan heads, and family leaders, while the remaining 20% is public or state land under governmental control . The customary system is deeply embedded in Ghana’s social and cultural fabric where land ownership and access are guided by traditional practices. However, this system coexists with statutory laws that regulate land use for mining, logging, and forest conservation .

The bundle of rights associated with land and forest resources includes the rights to access, use, manage, exclude, and transfer resources. Under customary tenure, these rights are typically held collectively by communities, with traditional authorities acting as custodians . However, in practice, chiefs and family heads often exercise significant discretion, including leasing lands to miners and loggers, sometimes without the consent of the broader community . This discretionary power has led to overexploitation and degradation of forest resources, undermining sustainable management efforts.

In contrast, statutory land management centralizes authority with government institutions such as the Forestry Commission and the Minerals Commission. These agencies are responsible for issuing permits and enforcing regulations, but they often fail to recognize or accommodate customary claims. For instance, communities may lose access to forest resources due to state-imposed restrictions, even though these resources are vital for their livelihoods .

3.1 Assessment of Governance and Relative Power

The governance of Ghana’s land tenure system is a delicate balancing act between customary traditions and statutory regulations. Traditional authorities wield significant local power, particularly in rural areas, where their decisions often determine land use. However, their authority is increasingly challenged by state institutions like the Forestry Commission and the Minerals Commission, which enforce statutory laws .

Customary leaders sometimes prioritize short-term economic gains over long-term environmental sustainability, leasing lands for illegal mining or logging . Their decisions can undermine governance efforts, especially when they conflict with national conservation policies. Meanwhile, local communities, though highly dependent on land, lack the formal rights needed to assert their interests effectively. Their participation in governance is often symbolic, with limited influence on decision-making processes .

State agencies, such as the Forestry Commission and EPA, have statutory authority to enforce land and resource management policies. However, corruption and resource constraints frequently weaken their impact. For example, the EPA is tasked with ensuring Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are conducted for mining operations, but inadequate monitoring allows illegal activities to persist .

NGOs and international donors bring critical resources and expertise to the table but often lack the authority to implement their initiatives independently. Their influence depends on collaboration with government agencies and traditional leaders, which can be inconsistent . Despite these challenges, programs like REDD+ have demonstrated the potential for collaborative governance, where multiple stakeholders work toward shared conservation goals .

4. Institutional/Administrative arrangements

The governance of Ghana’s forests and mineral resources involves several institutions with overlapping mandates. The Forestry Commission, through its Forest Services Division, manages forest reserves and enforces regulations under the Forestry Commission Act, 1999 (Act 571). The Minerals Commission oversees mining operations, ensuring compliance with environmental standards under the Minerals and Mining Act, 2006 (Act 703) . Additionally, the Environmental Protection Agency conducts Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) to mitigate the environmental impacts of mining activities .

However, institutional coordination remains weak, with limited resources and personnel hindering enforcement efforts. Local-level offices of key agencies are often underfunded, reducing their capacity to monitor illegal activities effectively . Furthermore, corruption and inadequate collaboration among regulatory bodies undermine the implementation of conservation policies, leaving forest reserves vulnerable to exploitation.

4.1. Governance Challenges

Despite Ghana’s strong legal framework for forest and mineral resource management, enforcement gaps and socio-economic pressures continue to drive deforestation. Corruption within regulatory institutions allows illegal logging and mining activities to flourish, while poverty and unemployment push communities toward unsustainable forest exploitation .

Collaborative forest management initiatives such as the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy (revised in 2012), have sought to engage local communities in conservation efforts. However, inadequate benefit-sharing mechanisms and limited community involvement have reduced the effectiveness of these programs . The lack of integration between national policies and local realities further hampers the success of sustainable forest management strategies.

The lessons from the past failures in community partnerships in forest management and the need to effectively manage forests in the country led to the adoption of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy, and which was revised in the year 2012. The revised policy aims to promote a more collaborative and sustainable forest management with communities and ensure equitable benefit sharing to improve the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities (Acheampong et al., 2018). Despite the strict legal regulations protecting the environment (forests), illegal mining has remained a major cause of forest degradation in Ghana. According to the Minerals and Mining Act 703, (2006) of Ghana requires all licensed operators to secure environmental impact assessment (EIA) which specifies the environmental safety for any intended mining projects in Ghana to protect the environment .

4.2. Management of Forest Reserves

The history of forest reserves in Ghana reflects the transition from colonial conservation for economic and climatic purposes to post-independence centralized control and eventually, collaborative management . Initiated in 1909 under colonial rule, forest reservation prioritized cocoa cultivation and timber production often sidelining local knowledge and non-timber uses. Post-independence policies like the 1959 Protected Timber Lands Act, centralized authority but alienated communities leading to forest degradation and poverty. Recognizing these failures, the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy emphasized local involvement, equitable benefit sharing, and sustainable practices. This shift marked a move toward balancing conservation with local livelihoods .

The management of Ghana’s forest reserves is overseen by the Forest Services Division (FSD), a public sector agency under the Forestry Commission (FC). The FSD is tasked with the protection, development, and sustainable management of forest resources, ensuring their long-term ecological and economic benefits . To achieve these objectives, Ghana has adopted a zoning strategy that categorizes forests into distinct management regimes based on resource availability and specific conservation goals.

The zoning system includes protection working circles for maintaining ecological integrity such as hill sanctuaries, swamps, shelterbelts, and fire protection areas. Other zones such as production and conversion circles are designed to balance resource extraction with sustainable practices . However, the effectiveness of these regimes is influenced by the diverse ecological zones across the country which require varying levels of managerial expertise and professional judgment. The inconsistency in management practices often leads to disparities in outcomes with some areas experiencing significant forest cover loss due to poor oversight or conflicting interests .

In addition to zoning, areas identified as Globally Significant Biodiversity Areas (GSBAs) have been prioritized for conservation due to their ecological importance. These areas provide habitat for diverse flora and fauna, playing a critical role in maintaining the country’s biodiversity interests .

4.3. Successes and Opportunities

One of Ghana’s significant successes is the development of a comprehensive national REDD+ strategy. This strategy outlines both national and sub-national policies to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation while incentivizing sustainable forest management . By participating in international carbon markets, Ghana has aimed to align its forest management practices with global climate finance mechanisms. However, losses in carbon revenue due to persistent forest degradation have impacted the country’s ability to fully meet its emission reduction goals .

Afforestation and reforestation programs have also been rolled out to expand Ghana’s forest estate. Initiatives such as the Green Ghana Project, Forest Plantation Strategy, Youth in Afforestation Programme and Youth in Plantation Establishment are designed to increase forest cover and involve local communities in restoration efforts. These efforts highlight the government’s dual focus on environmental conservation and socio-economic development . The suspension of exploration in forest reserves and the ban on the harvesting of Rosewood, supported by the issuance of CITES permits, reflect efforts to regulate resource exploitation. Simultaneously, the Forestry Commission has intensified reclamation efforts through projects such as the Forest Investment Programme and the Ghana Landscape Restoration and Small-Scale Mining Project (GLRSSMP), aiming to rehabilitate degraded lands and mitigate the effects of illegal mining .

Despite these successes, challenges remain. Programs like REDD+ have faced implementation delays due to limited financial and logistical resources, affecting their overall impact on sustainable land use . Additionally, the lack of meaningful local community involvement has hindered the success of market-based approaches like carbon offsetting and sustainable certification schemes. The benefits of these programs have often failed to trickle down to forest-adjacent communities, limiting their support and participation in conservation efforts .

5. Interested Stakeholders

Minerals Commission (MC)

The Minerals Commission is basically responsilbe for the regulation and management of utilization of minerals resources like gold in Ghana. The district offices of the Minerals Commission perform or implement directives from its national headquarters. At the district level, its Inspectorate Division undertakes responsibility for promoting, regulating, and managing the exploitation of the mineral. Additionally, the district office through its Inspectorate Division performs inspection of the environmental, health, and safety of mining activities at forest reserves to ensure compliance with the mining regulations .

Forestry Commission (FC)

Forest reserves are principally managed by the Forestry Commission with its Forest Services Division (FSD). The district, as part of its mandates, grants permits through its head office to concessionaires with harvesting rights (permit) especially timber firms who have satisfied requirements for logging timber species.

Water Resources Commission (WRC)

The Water Resources Commission is mandated to protect the buffer zones of the rivers from pollution since they take their source from most forest reserves. This is carried out periodically through “ecological monitoring” activities to fetch for non-permit users (offenders) and also ensures that permit users conform to the regulations .

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

The Environmental Protection Agency generally carries out Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on the forest environment, and with regard to mining, a concession that a miner has acquired and ensures environmental requirements, but in liaison with other stakeholders notably the FC, WRC, and the District Assemblies to ensure that a miner has forfeited all payments before issuing environmental permit .

The Administrator of Stool Lands (OASL)

The Office of the Administrator of Stool Lands facilitates the collection and payments of mineral royalties from mining activities and enables fair distribution to stool lands. The OASL also ensures the sharing of compensation payments to individuals and communities affected by mining actions in forests .

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s)

These are environmental NGOs who are offering benevolent aid to affected individuals and societies by mining practices in Atewa. These NGOs observe the implementation of state policies regarding mining . They even provide better aid to communities to the extent of giving relief items. In addition, NGOs undertake educational campaigns to sensitize communities on the adverse nature of mining aside from its economic benefits to the communities; empower the indigenes to develop their living standards, and stand as watchdogs in ensuring that proper regulations are adhered to by mining firms by way of contributing to sustainable development. They serve as pressure groups to ensure transparency in sharing mineral prospects due to an individual or a community.

Gold Traders

Gold traders are primarily concerned with the financial benefits derived from gold mining activities. They provide a crucial link in the value chain, purchasing gold extracted from both legal and illegal mining operations, including galamsey. Their interest lies in maintaining a steady supply of gold, often turning a blind eye to its source, which exacerbates illegal mining and the associated environmental degradation . They have significant economic leverage but are less affected by the consequences of forest loss, such as water pollution and soil degradation, compared to local communities.

Chinese Operators

Chinese operators, who are often involved in illegal mining and logging activities, are interested stakeholders with a notable influence on Ghana’s forest industry. Their operations, particularly in galamsey, have introduced mechanized mining techniques that significantly accelerate forest and land degradation. Many Chinese operators collaborate with local actors, including chiefs and landowners, to gain access to mineral-rich forest reserves. Their interest lies in maximizing profits from Ghana’s natural resources, with little regard for long-term environmental consequences. While their activities contribute to deforestation, water pollution, and biodiversity loss, they are not directly affected by these issues, as they often return to their home country after operations .

6. Affected Stakeholders

The Traditional Authorities

The Traditional Authorities constitute the paramount chief and some stools chiefs. These stakeholders are classified as the custodians of the forest reserves and grant a miner the permission to mine in the forest upon the miner meeting their requirements i.e., Social Responsibility Agreements (SRAs). The Traditional Rulers encourage community members to supervise mining operations and also ensure that mining is practiced in compliance with the laws and regulations, but this idea is not observed .

Mining / Local Communities

Mining operations are carried out in some communities fringing forest reserves to the extent that these communities need to be resettled by mining firms. These communities, through their chiefs’ release lands for mineral utilization in exchange for compensation, but are affected immensely by the activities of the mining operations such as pollution of rivers, air pollution, land degradation, land encroachment, land grabbing and community resettlement .

Local Farmers

Local farmers, while not directly involved in mining or logging, are indirectly affected by these activities. They rely on forest ecosystems for water regulation, fertile soil, and non-timber forest products. Illegal mining and logging disrupt these ecological services, leading to reduced agricultural productivity and food insecurity. Farmers may also face displacement when their lands are leased for mining or logging activities, further threatening their livelihoods.

Small-Scale Miners (Galamsey Operators)

Small-scale miners, commonly referred to as galamsey operators, engage in informal mining activities to earn a livelihood. These miners operate in forest reserves, often with rudimentary tools or small machinery, and are responsible for significant deforestation and pollution of water bodies. While their activities provide short-term economic benefits to individuals and local economies, they are deeply affected by the environmental degradation they cause. The loss of arable land, polluted water sources, and exposure to toxic substances like mercury have long-term health and socio-economic consequences for these miners and their communities .

Chainsaw Operators

Chainsaw operators are affected stakeholders whose activities, although often illegal, are driven by economic necessity. These individuals engage in unauthorized logging to supply timber to local markets, which contributes to deforestation and forest degradation. Many chainsaw operators operate informally, exploiting loopholes in governance structures and avoiding regulations. Despite their negative impact on forests, they depend on this livelihood for their survival. Chainsaw operators are particularly vulnerable to crackdowns and regulatory measures, which can result in loss of income and criminal penalties .

7. Stakeholders Power Dynamics

Low Influence with High Importance Traditional Authorities, Mining/Local Communities and Local Farmers These stakeholders are crucial to sustainable land management and resource use but lack the power to shape policies or enforce practices, leaving them vulnerable to the actions of more influential actors.

High Influence with Low Importance Gold Traders and Chinese Operators These stakeholders wield significant decision-making and operational power but primarily focus on short-term economic gains, often at the expense of environmental and social sustainability.

Low Influence with Low Importance Chainsaw Operators and Small-Scale Miners (Galamsey Operators These stakeholders have limited organizational and governance power. While their cumulative impact on forest degradation is substantial, they operate informally and lack influence in broader industry dynamics.

High Influence with High Importance Minerals Commission, Forestry Commission, Environmental Protection Agency, Water Resources Commission, Non-Governmental Organizations and the Administrator of Stool Lands These stakeholders have both statutory authority and significant roles in resource management and enforcement. Their actions and decisions directly shape the sustainability of Ghana’s forestry and mining industries

8. Recommendations

Illegal mining and timber logging pose significant threats to Ghana’s forest reserves, undermining efforts to achieve sustainable development. These recommendations can help address the challenges;

Strengthen Governance and Enforcement

Illegal mining and unsustainable logging in Ghana stem significantly from weak governance structures and enforcement mechanisms. To address these issues, regulatory agencies like the Forestry Commission, Minerals Commission, and Environmental Protection Agency must be equipped with adequate resources. Increasing their budgets and providing state-of-the-art monitoring tools, alongside training personnel in environmental law enforcement, will significantly enhance their operational capacity. Furthermore, corruption within these institutions undermines their effectiveness. Transparent oversight bodies should be established to audit processes, investigate misconduct, and ensure compliance with environmental regulations. To complement these efforts, harmonizing the mandates of institutions managing forest and mineral resources is essential. Clear protocols for collaboration between agencies will reduce redundancies, improve coordination, and ensure a united front against illegal activities.

Empower Local Communities

Community-based forest management initiatives, such as those promoted under REDD+ programs, must be expanded to ensure local stakeholders are genuinely involved in monitoring and conservation activities. Moreover, alternative livelihoods need to be developed to reduce reliance on destructive practices. Training programs in sustainable agriculture, agroforestry, and ecotourism can offer viable economic opportunities, reducing community dependence on illegal mining and logging. Financial incentives, microloans, and technical support should be provided to encourage adoption and sustain these practices over time.

Enhance Monitoring and Technology Use

The fight against illegal activities in Ghana’s forests requires robust monitoring systems powered by advanced technologies. Satellite imagery, drones, and geographic information systems (GIS) can provide real-time data on illegal mining and logging activities, allowing for swift interventions. Investments in these technologies would enable the Forestry Commission and other stakeholders to monitor vast forest reserves more effectively. A centralized database system should be developed to track permits, concessions, and land-use changes. This system would not only promote transparency but also improve inter-agency coordination. By sharing accurate and up-to-date information among stakeholders, the government can ensure that enforcement efforts are proactive and well-informed.

Reform Legal Frameworks

While Ghana has strong forestry and mining laws, gaps in enforcement and loopholes in policies allow illegal activities to persist. Amending existing legal frameworks to include stricter penalties for offenders and comprehensive environmental safeguards is critical. For instance, the Forestry Commission Act and the Minerals and Mining Act should be reviewed to close gaps in licensing processes and ensure sustainable practices are embedded in all concessions. Moreover, customary land governance structures must be integrated into statutory frameworks to create a cohesive system that addresses the diverse socio-ecological realities of forest management. Strengthening the judiciary to fast-track cases involving environmental crimes will also send a clear message of zero tolerance for illegal practices.

Improve Conservation and Restoration Programs

Conservation efforts must prioritize reforestation and the rehabilitation of degraded areas. Ghana’s Green Ghana Project, alongside other initiatives like the Forest Plantation Strategy, has demonstrated the potential to restore forest cover. Scaling up these programs and ensuring their sustainability by involving local communities in tree planting and maintenance will enhance their impact. Biodiversity hotspots, such as Globally Significant Biodiversity Areas (GSBAs), should receive heightened protection, with stricter enforcement of conservation laws in these zones. Furthermore, reclamation projects targeting lands degraded by illegal mining must be intensified. Collaborating with research institutions to identify native species best suited for these areas can improve ecological recovery while preserving biodiversity.

Leverage International Partnerships

International partnerships offer vital financial and technical support for addressing deforestation challenges. Ghana should strengthen its participation in programs like REDD+ and leverage climate finance mechanisms to fund sustainable forest management initiatives. By aligning conservation goals with global carbon offset markets, the country can attract investments that incentivize sustainable land use. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international donors are also instrumental in bridging gaps between policy and practice. Their role in providing technical expertise, advocacy, and funding cannot be understated. Developing frameworks for better collaboration between these organizations and government agencies can ensure that conservation efforts are well-coordinated and impactful.

Enhance Education and Awareness

Education and awareness are pivotal in shifting attitudes toward sustainable forest use. Chiefs, local communities, and small-scale miners must be educated about the long-term impacts of illegal logging and mining. Targeted campaigns highlighting the economic and environmental consequences of deforestation can foster a collective sense of responsibility. Also, integrating environmental conservation into school curricula will instill sustainable practices in future generations. Workshops, community meetings, and media campaigns should emphasize the importance of forest resources, promoting a culture of environmental stewardship across all levels of society.

These measures, when implemented effectively, will create a holistic approach to addressing illegal mining and timber logging. By tackling the root causes, empowering stakeholders, and fostering sustainable practices, Ghana can achieve a balance between economic growth and environmental conservation. Safeguarding forest reserves is not just an ecological imperative but also a socio-economic necessity for future generations.

This conservation resource was created by Course:FRST522.