Documentation:Open Case Studies/FRST522/2023/Cumberland Community Forest, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada: An Analysis and Overview

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Summary of Case Study

Location of Cumberland, British Columbia.

In Canada and across the globe, community forestry is a practice that has become increasingly popular over the past few decades. With an overarching goal for the devolution of state and corporate power/rights to a community managed landscape, the aim is to put decision making back into the hands of those most affected by these processes[1]. While the specific aims of individual community forest associations (CFA's) differ across local contexts, a common theme apparent in the majority of CFA's around the world is the push for an increase in local access rights while ensuring a level of economic stability and viability for the CFA[2]. The Cumberland Community Forest is unique in the Province of British Columbia, as it achieves these goals through a mechanism unlike other CFA's in Canada. This article examines the successes of the Cumberland Community Forest as well as the various factors that contributed to the perceived need to create a community forest.

Keywords

Community, Cumberland, E&N, Forest, Forestry, K'omoks, Land-grant, Municipality, Vancouver Island

Author's Positionality Statement

Prior to delving further into this case study, I must recognize that I have worked on and completed this UBC Wiki Page on the unceded territories of The xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam), Sḵwx̱wú7mesh (Squamish), and səlilwətaɬ (Tsleil-Waututh) peoples, the traditional keepers and stewards of the land. As a non-Indigenous member of society raised in British Columbia, I continually seek to improve my understanding of the complex history of colonization, and in doing so, aim to recognize the historical and ongoing trauma and inequalities that exist. Having also grown up on unceded territories of the Musqueam and Tsleil-Waututh peoples in Vancouver, British Columbia, I recognize that my upbringing has been dictated by the historic settler/colonial practices that had taken place (and still do) on these lands. Having completed an undergraduate degree in Environmental Studies on unceded W̲SÁNEĆ (Saanich) and Lək̓ʷəŋən (Lekwungen) territory at the University of Victoria, I recognize I likely have a certain amount of bias when it comes to discussing ecology in the context of coastal British Columbia. Through my professional work I have had the privilege of working alongside a number of First Nations groups across the coast of British Columbia, which has given me the opportunity to reflect on the importance of healthy functioning ecosystems and the associated community benefits.

Recognizing one's positionality and potential privileges in a given context allows for a more nuanced analysis of the subject in question, as the impacts of unnoticed biases can be both pervasive and prominent.

Introduction

Extent of Cumberland Community Forest and dates of purchase.

The Village of Cumberland, located on eastern Vancouver Island, is a small municipality that has a population of around 4,500, as of the 2021 census, with the average age of residents being about 40 years old[3]. Cumberland is situated on the boundary of two biogeoclimatic zones, being the Coastal Western Hemlock zone and Coastal Douglas-Fir zone, and as such the historical composition of forests are representative of these zones. Characteristic of the Pacific Northwest, the annual average precipitation for the area is 2157mm[4], with dominant tree species being Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Douglas-Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), red alder (Alnus rubra), western red-cedar (Thuja pilcata), big-leaf maple (Acer macrophylum), and Arbutus (Arbutus menziesii). Animal species within the park are also well represented, with a number of organisms being listed under the federal Species at Risk Act, or SARA[5]. These include (but are not limited to) the Olive-sided Flycatcher (Contopus cooperi) and the Pacific Sideband Snail (Monadenia fidelis). However a number of species from the area such as the Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) and the wolverine (Gulo gulo) are now extinct.

The Cumberland Community Forest (CCF) is made up of multiple different parcels of privately purchased land totaling 545 acres of forestland located adjacent to the Village of Cumberland on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada[5].

Description

Area of K'omoks First Nation Unceded Territory

Since time immemorial, members of the K'omoks First Nation (formerly the Sasitla, Sahtloot, leeksun, and Puntledge Nations) had occupied and stewarded the land which currently makes up the CCF[6]. Communities followed the seasonally abundant resources that were present across the territory such as berries, salmon, elk, and grasses, and consistent use has been documented for centuries. However, with the onset of colonization in the late 1700's through to the 1800's came the destruction and displacement of both humans and forestlands on Vancouver Island. One of the most impactful outcomes from the rapid expansion of European influence on Vancouver Island was the privatization of massive swathes of land resultant from a historical deal known as the E&N Land Grant - or more colloquially referred to as 'The Great Land Grab'[7]. This would have everlasting implications on the rights and title of land for not only the K'omoks First Nation, but for dozens of other Nations on Vancouver Island.

Map of land granted to Robert Dunsmuir under the E&N Land Grant.


E&N Land Grant

The lands comprising the current CCF have a long history with European extractive industries, beginning in the 1880's with the large scale development of coal mines and logging infrastructure[8]. In an effort to connect communities across Vancouver Island to accessible markets for raw goods, paired with the federal endeavour to have a nation-wide railway, a plan was made to create a railroad along the eastern seaboard of Vancouver Island. An endeavour this large, however, required private funding, and an eager coal baron named Robert Dunsmuir jumped at the chance to finance the project. As part of the deal for financing the proposed railway, “BC agreed to grant about two million acres [of land] plus $750,000 to the company that constructed a railroad on Vancouver Island.”[7], representing nearly one quarter of the landmass of Vancouver Island. The 'legal' transfer of this massive area in turn extinguished traditionally held rights and practices of dozens of First Nations groups, including an area of more than 800,000 ha of Hul'qumi'num territory in the southern reaches of Vancouver Island[9]. In 1884 this land distribution scheme was finalized, with the implications from this legacy still very much dictating the makeup of Vancouver Island today. Whereas the vast majority of forestlands in British Columbia (and Canada in general) are held under Crown title [10], the southeastern quadrant of Vancouver Island was titled and parceled privately under Dunsmuir's ownership, massively benefitting those in close business/personal partnerships with him. Concurrently, this stripped access and harvest rights that First Nations groups traditionally held on the land, and the creation of reserve lands through the Indian Act further displaced countless communities. Ironically, the railway line was never fully built to completion, yet the proposed right-of-way lands were still granted as compensation - this appears to follow in line with Dunsmuir's principles at the time, as “Dunsmuir had little interest in railroads; what he wanted was the land, and with it control of the great reserves of coal and other minerals”[7]. Over the coming decades, the majority of these lands would be sold to private timber harvesting companies and thus to developers, permanently altering the landscape. Fast forward to 2018, and the primary landholders -- Island Timberlands and TimberWest -- have merged into what is now known as Mosaic Forest Management, a timber harvesting and land management business.

Cumberland Community Forest

Portion of the Cumberland Community Forest watershed.

In response to decades of clearcut logging decimating the forests of east Vancouver Island, community members from the Village of Cumberland sought to find a way to preserve and protect the remnant second-growth forests adjacent to the municipality. In most other places in the province, this has been achieved through the formal creation of Community Forest Agreements (CFA), whereby provincially held land is granted in varied tenures to a municipality or working group. Stipulations such as formal management plans and adherence to existing provincial regulations surrounding harvesting responsibilities (Annual Allowable Cut, replanting schemes etc.) exist, and adherence to provincially set policies and mandates is required[1]. The Village of Cumberland, however, is surrounded by privately held land (mostly Mosaic Forest Management and Manulife Investment Management) stemming from the E&N land grant as opposed to Crown land. In an effort to find a solution to this conundrum and to ensure a sufficient level of biodiversity and healthy ecosystem services, community members banded together in the year 2000 to from the Cumberland Community Forests Society[5]. The aim of the Society was to purchase and protect forestland from the threat of clearcut logging, as well as to provide ample opportunities for residents to immerse themselves in their surrounding ecosystems, highlighting the importance of maintaining healthy functioning landscapes. To date, there have been 3 separate land purchases (after the initial 72 ha purchase in 2005) that have contributed to the current total of over 550 acres[5].

While conservation was the initial focal point of the importance of the CCF, 18 years after the first land purchase the CCF currently offers a wide range of both ecosystem and social benefits. The CCF is now known for its world-renowned mountain biking trails which have attracted both media attention and a significant amount of usership[11], significantly contributing to the tourism revenue generated by the Village of Cumberland. In its current iteration, the CCF not only succeeds in its stated goal to act as a natural buffer to the urban landscape, but additionally provides a wide range of recreational, educational, and tourism based opportunities. This duality is one of the factors that contributes to the CCF being an effective ecosystem and social management tool when compared with other CFA's that have legally binding industrial responsibilities such as timber harvesting and road construction.

Tenure arrangements

Section of CCF's Land Title Act granted by the Government of British Columbia.

Due to the successes of the CCF and their active involvement in procuring privately held land, the CCF is entirely owned by the Village of Cumberland. When compared to typical CFA's in BC this indeed is an anomaly, yet also acts as a prime example of how CFA's could be more effective in their community oriented goals. As stipulated in the CCF's management plan, and contrary to all other CFA's in BC dependent on meeting AAC regulations, timber harvesting is specifically banned within the boundaries of the CCF[12]. While some argue this creates a negative financial impact due to lost revenues, the majority of community members support the legislation and as such, are able to engage with the forest in a variety of ways that other CFA's cannot.

Rights Cumberland Community Forest
Exclusion Yes; The CCF excludes logging and other companies from accessing the forest
Withdrawal Yes; Feasibly able to sell land to private companies or back to Provincial Government
Alienation No; CCFS lands are communally held through municipal ownership
Bequeathment Yes
Extinguishability No
Duration Unlimited; Privately purchased land to remain in community trust
Access Yes; Agreed upon access by Village of Cumberland, CCFS, UROC, Mosaic

Institutional/Administrative arrangements

Map of biking and hiking trails in the CCF and surrounding area.

As the CCF is an entity owned by the Village of Cumberland, it is governed by standards and rules that have been put in place by the municipality, adding a level of embedded responsibility in forest management practices[12]. The CCF and United Riders of Cumberland (UROC) are the two non-profit organizations that are most involved with legislation surrounding the CCF, doing so in quite differing contexts. The CCF is involved with monitoring the application of the forest management plan, ensuring that the primary function of retaining ecosystem values is realised[13]. As land is continually added to the CCF, there is a need for constant revision of practices and management schemes. UROC on the other hand is a non-profit which is responsible for the maintenance and creation of mountain biking trails within the CCF, one of the biggest drivers of recreational tourism in the area[14]. Adding on to the notion of continually shifting boundaries of the CCF, UROC has established a Memorandum of Understanding with both Mosaic Forest Management and Manulife Investment Management that outlines access agreements and rights for bikers to safely utilize trails that extend outside of the CCF's current boundaries[14]. This collaboration between industry and community members has been a positive force in creating strong stakeholder relations.

Affected Stakeholders

Cumberland Community Forest Society - CCFS

Cumberland Community Forest Logo

The Cumberland Community Forest Society is a volunteer ran organization which acts as the primary voice and operational arm of the Cumberland Community Forest. Formed in the year 2000, the CCFS engages with both public and private institutions to raise awareness about the importance in expanding the protected areas around the Village of Cumberland. This is done through a variety of mechanisms such as door to door lobbying, hosting charitable events, engaging in 'Bio-blitzes', and direct engagement with local schools and education centers[5]. Initiatives such as the 'Perseverance Trail Run', 'The Cumby', and 'The Devils Ladder' ultramarathon[15] are some of the higher profile annual events which garner support from both community members and local industries. The CCFS also directly engages with Mosaic Forest Management and Manulife Investment Management in the purchasing of private land, and in this context they hold a reasonable amount of power in the decision making processes governing the CCF.

K'omoks First Nation

The K'omoks First Nation are the traditional inhabitants and stewards of the unceded land where the Village of Cumberland and the CCF are located. Currently, officially designated K'omoks First Nation reserves are located outside of the boundaries of the CCF, however if land assertion and sovereignty claims are made, this may affect current and future boundaries of the CCF. The K'omoks First Nation is somewhat involved with the CCFS in acquiring parcels of private land and has assisted in creating the CCF's management plan[6] - however, there is little information available pertaining to the extent to which this involvement takes place. It is interesting to note that although the the CCFS and Village of Cumberland are staunch advocates for increasing the protected area that the Community Forest encompasses, the K'omoks First Nation has their own Treaty which dictates policy such as the provisioning of land, which in turn could create conflicts with future initiatives from the CCFS. Relatively speaking, the K'omoks First Nation appears to have the least amount of power in terms of land use rights and decision making out of the five Affected Stakeholders.

Mosaic land title (amalgamation of TimberWest and Island Timberlands).

Mosaic Forest Management/Manulife Investment Management

These two companies are the primary landholders whom the CCFS has acquired land from. Mosaic is an amalgamation of two timber companies (Timberwest Island Timberlands) that control the rights to the majority of formerly E&N granted land on Vancouver Island. Directly and indirectly employing more than 2000 people through their operations across Vancouver Island, Mosaic is responsible for the management of more than 500,000 ha of private forested land, making it one of the largest private landholders in British Columbia[16]. As stated previously, Manulife Investment Management is a private equity and management firm with over 800 billion dollars in assets under management[17] and controls 1000+ acres of land west of the existing CCF - some of Manulife's private land has already been purchased by the CCFS. While at first it might appear that these should fall into the category of "Interested Stakeholder" given that there is a clear border between CCF lands and private lands, the fact that CCF land purchases are 100% reliant on these two institutions means that they hold a significant amount of power and as such should be considered an 'Affected Stakeholder'.

United Riders of Cumberland

Bike trails in Cumberland Community Forest.

The United Riders of Cumberland, with the affectionate acronym of UROC, is a non-profit organization that creates and maintains biking trails within the CCF, as well as liaises with private landholders. UROC is dependent on the CCF for the provision of land with which to plan trail networks, and participates in community events that support the mission of the CCF[14]. One of the biggest and most vocal advocates for the CCF, UROC plays an integral role in the functionality of the forest. UROCs members range from children to the elderly, and their goal of providing world-class recreation in the context of a protected and functional ecosystem is one of the reasons they are such an integral facet of the CCF. As they advocate for access to recreational activities on privately held land, UROC has established both liability and access agreements with associated stakeholders[14] in order to prevent legal challenges which may impact the functionality and successes of the CCF. While UROC is one of the main advocates for the CCF, functionally, they only hold a moderate amount of decision making power due to their limited capacity as a mountain biking/advocacy group.

Village of Cumberland

The Village of Cumberland is the official owner of the lands that comprise the CCF, and as such are directly invested in the management success of the forest. Land purchases by the CCFS are transferred to the Village, which in turn takes responsibility and ownership of the newly acquired parcels of forest. Revenues from forest use are returned back to the municipality in the form of further land acquisition, increased services, and community based programs and events[18]. With a population that is rising relatively quickly, it is worth noting that the municipal boundaries of the Village are dependent on the extent of the CCF, and that future urban development that may be needed to accommodate an increase in population would in turn negatively affect the ecological integrity of perimeter areas of the forest. The Village of Cumberland holds the majority balance of power in the operational and functional context of the CCF, but is reliant upon the cooperation of other stakeholders for successful management.

Critical Issues

First Nations Involvement

While the CCF demonstrates that successful community engagement and participation can lead to tangible land use changes, there are still a number of areas of issue that need to be addressed. Primarily, in an era where we are actively attempting to reverse the impact of historical injustices committed on Frist Nation communities, it would be beneficial to seek the direct involvement of K'omoks First Nations leadership on issues pertaining to the CCF and further land acquisition attempts. Given that the lands which comprise the CCF (as well as the Village of Cumberland and much of the privately owned land in the area) are located on the traditional, unceded territories of the K'omoks First Nation, it is unfortunate to notice a lack of initiatives supporting the Nation by the CCFS and other stakeholders. While there is mention of active partnerships, there is very little accessible information regarding these programs.

Land Use and Zoning

Biologically, the CCF is a success with regards to ensuring ecosystem services and the protection of threatened species, but it could be argued that this comes at a direct financial cost; due to the CCF's mandate that ensures no timber harvesting occurs within its boundaries, the Village of Cumberland loses out on the potential profits and stumpage fees from the standing timber in the forest. Currently, the only harvesting allowed within the CCF is of NTFP's such as mushrooms, berries, and small plants, while trees cut down for safety purposes are not allowed to be removed from the forest[12]. The strict rules pertaining to removal of organic material from the CCF also goes against common fire mitigation practices, as an increase in standing dead wood and the build up of flammable material on the forest floor increases the likelihood of a severe fire occurring. These policies further limit the possible economic benefits to be had from allowing small scale harvesting within the CCF.

Affordability

Anecdotally, some argue that the CCF is one of the many reasons why the Village of Cumberland is becoming a less accessible living space for many residents. While real-estate values have skyrocketed across Vancouver Island over the past decade, the attractiveness of having access to renowned biking trails is what some say has contributed to the rising cost of living and associated increases in housing costs[19]. Additionally, the CCF acts as a barrier to increasing the stock of housing in the Village of Cumberland as development is prohibited within the current boundaries of the forest[12]. These factors contribute to the economic difficulties in operating a community managed forest that prioritizes ecosystem health and does not financially profit from accessible timber.

Recommendations

Though there are many reasons to applaud the CCF in its role as a multi-functional landscape, that is not to say that there are no improvements that can be made. Primarily, in an era where we are actively attempting to reverse the impact of historical injustices committed on Frist Nation communities, it would be beneficial to seek the direct involvement of K'omoks First Nations leadership on issues pertaining to the CCF and further land acquisition attempts. While many CCFS members assist K'omoks First Nations initiatives and projects[5], on the surface it appears that K'omoks First Nations members are not as involved with the CCFS and thus this relationship could be improved by increased communication between parties. Although the CCFS frequently hosts events in the CCF relating to biodiversity and forest stewardship, there should be a push to have K'omoks First Nation led programs actively supported and promoted by the CCFS. Additionally, comprehensive archaeological assessments should be taken across current and proposed CCF lands, ensuring that culturally significant artifacts and landscapes are not damaged through the use and expansion of the forest.

With the high level of usership that the CCF sees, it is integral that the initial ideals of conservation and retention of ecosystem services are adhered to. Given that dozens of trails have been cut across the CCF for biking purposes, a monitoring team should be established to ensure there is no significant habitat degradation. In order to achieve maximum effectiveness, this team should include members from all five of the listed affected stakeholders. Additionally, a third party biological consulting company would prove to be beneficial in confirming all data acquired.

Altering the zoning legislation and opening up the CCF to considerately selected removal of debris, danger trees, and standing dead trees would allow for both wildfire mitigation enhancements as well as additional sources of funding to facilitate further land purchases. However, extreme care should be taken with any legislation changes pertaining to ecosystem management given that the primary function of the CCF is to retain ecosystem services and biodiversity[18].


This conservation resource was created by Course:FRST522.


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :0
  2. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :2
  3. ↑ Statistics Canada (March 9th, 2023). "2021 Census of population: Cumberland". Statistics Canada. Retrieved December 7th, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  4. ↑ Climate Data (December 7th, 2023). "Cumberland Climate Data". Climate Data. Retrieved December 7th, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :1
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :3
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :4
  8. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :5
  9. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :6
  10. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :13
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :10
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :7
  13. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :8
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :9
  15. ↑ Trail Run (December 14th, 2023). "Perseverance Trail Run". TrailForks. Retrieved December 14th, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  16. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :14
  17. ↑ Manulife (2021). "Manulife Investment Management". Manulife Investment Management. Retrieved December 1st 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Cumberland, The Village of. "Cumberland Community Forest Park". Village of Cumberland. Retrieved December 4th, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :11

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  1. ↑ Cumberland Community Forest Society (November 22nd, 2023). "Cumberland forest: what we've achieved". Cumberland Community Forest Society. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ↑ Charnley, S. (2007). Annual Review of Anthropology: Community forestry in theory and practice. pp. 301–336.
  3. ↑ Gunter, J (2004). "The community forestry guidebook: tools and techniques for communities in BC". Forrex - forest research extension partnership. 15.
  4. ↑ Gunter, J (2022). Handbook of community forestry. Routledge. pp. 319–337.
  5. ↑ Habedus-Sorenson, C (2022). "The interplay of actors surrounding the E&N corridor on Vancouver Island". Thesis Research Project.
  6. ↑ Harper, S (2019). "The Cumberland commons: a forest ethnography". Royal Roads thesis.
  7. ↑ Horter, W (2008). "The great land grab". The Watershed Sentinel. Retrieved November 23rd, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  8. ↑ Hul'qumi'num Treaty Group (2021). "The great land grab" (PDF). Great land grab. Retrieved November 23rd, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  9. ↑ K'omoks First Nation (2016). "K'omoks First Nation: Land Code". K'omoks First Nation. Retrieved November 24th, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  10. ↑ Laurin, O (2023). "Forest in the village: Cumberland's new project to increase urban canopy". Comox Valley Record. Retrieved November 22nd, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  11. ↑ Mosaic Forest Management (2022). "Sustainability Progress Report" (PDF). Mosaic. Retrieved November 22nd, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  12. ↑ Province of British Columbia (2005). "Land Title Act: Cumberland forest covenant" (PDF). Retrieved November 23rd, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  13. ↑ Sainsbury, B (2021). "Canada's village that bought a forest". BBC Travel. Retrieved November 23rd, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  14. ↑ Taylor, W (1975). Crown land grants: A history of the Esquimalt and Nanaimo railway land grants. https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/bib73314.pdf: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.CS1 maint: location (link)
  15. ↑ Trainer, M (2015). "Our History: The E&N's long journey from dream to doubt". The Times Colonist.
  16. ↑ United Riders of Cumberland (2021). "About us: United Riders of Cumberland". UROC. Retrieved November 24th, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  17. ↑ Duinker; et al. (November 1994). "Community Forests in Canada: An overview". The Forestry Chronicle. Vol. 70, No. 6. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)
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