Documentation:Open Case Studies/FRST522/2023/Assessment of Wildfire Management in Squamish Community Forest, British Columbia, BC, Canada

Summary of Case Study

The management of wildfires in the Squamish Community Forest area involves a complex approach that addresses various challenges and leverages available resources. The region's susceptibility to wildfires, exacerbated by human activities and environmental factors, necessitates a proactive and comprehensive strategy. The analysis of the current situation reveals both strengths and areas for improvement in the wildfire management plan. One significant drawback is the potential for conflicts of interest in governance, as balancing the diverse interests of stakeholders may impede swift decision-making during emergencies. To mitigate this challenge, the implementation of a conflict resolution framework is proposed, facilitating transparent communication and collaboration among stakeholders. Additionally, the varying compliance with FireSmart guidelines across different neighbourhoods highlights the importance of standardized regulations and proactive measures. Encouraging consistent adherence to FireSmart practices, along with incentivizing homeowners to adopt these guidelines, can significantly enhance community resilience against the threat of wildfires. Weather-related challenges and limited historical data for new developments further complicate wildfire management. Improving early warning systems for extreme weather conditions and conducting proactive risk assessments for new developments based on broader regional data are recommended solutions. Ensuring better access for firefighters, enhancing water availability, and addressing potential ignition sources are vital components of a comprehensive wildfire management plan. The proposal to establish new trails for firefighting purposes and strategically place fire hydrants in high-risk areas reflects a commitment to proactive prevention. In conclusion, while the Squamish Community Forest area faces challenges in wildfire management, the proposed strategies and recommendations aim to create a more resilient and responsive framework. By reaching a collaboration, addressing conflicts of interest, and implementing proactive measures, the community can enhance its ability to prevent, prepare for, and respond to wildfires effectively. This comprehensive approach aligns with the goal of safeguarding lives, property, and the natural environment in the face of an evolving wildfire risk landscape.

Keywords

Wildfire, Community Forest, FireSmart, Fuel Management, Firebreak, Wireless Sense Network

Introduction to wildfires

A Wildfire is a large destructive fire that spreads quickly over forestland or brush. Climate change could make forest fires more frequent and severe, resulting in more challenging wildfire seasons. A study found that human activities contribute to over 95% of the likelihood of extreme temperature changes observed. This makes events with high fire risk or behaviour metrics 2–4 times more likely. Additionally, anthropogenic climate change is linked to a 7–11 times increase in the area affected by wildfires (Kirchmeier-Young, 2018).

The onset of the 2022 wildfire season was delayed compared to typical occurrences, due to the advantage of ample winter precipitation and a cool, wet spring. The sustained period of warm and dry weather led to an unusually prolonged wildfire season in British Columbia, breaking records for the highest number of fires detected per week in late August and mid-October over the past two decades. By October 31, the BC Wildfire Service had identified 1,758 wildfires, encompassing approximately 133,437 hectares of burned area. Lightning activity was responsible for 68% of the fires in 2022, and only 11% of the total fires exceeded five hectares in size. (BC Ministry of Forests, 2022) The data from 2022 wildfire seasons in BC highlights the importance of formulating a comprehensive plan to regulate human activities and proactively mitigate the potential occurrence of wildfires, including the considerations of the impact of climate factors.

Wildfire causes acute and chronic health problem to wildlife. Breathing in wildfire smoke can hurt the lungs of land mammals, causing both heat and chemical damage. This damage can make liquid build up in the lungs, leading to a condition called pulmonary edema. (Fitzgerald, 2006) Breathing in wildfire smoke may change how the immune system works in animals and make it weaker. Oxidative stress, caused by smoke exposure, can harm the immune function by damaging important cells like macrophages. This damage to the lungs and the weakened immune system can make animals more likely to get respiratory infections like pneumonia. (Sanderfoot, 2022)

In British Columbia, The expenses for battling wildfires have surged to about $770 million in 2023, which was higher than the $649 million spent in 2017. The B.C. government revealed that unexpectedly high firefighting costs have added an extra $2.5 billion to the province's expected deficit for this fiscal year. For the entire 2023/24 fiscal year, the government estimates a total expenditure of $966 million in dealing with wildfire-related challenges. (CBC News, 2023)

The wildfire event also resulted in social impacts, such as a housing shortage and trust issues between management organizations and local residents. Evacuees from First Nations communities face extra worries during wildfires because there aren't enough suitable homes. The fear of not having a secure place to stay makes the stress of evacuation even harder. In the case of Whitefish Lake, media attention mostly focused on the non-indigenous community of Slave Lake, making it tricky for people to find specific information about what was happening in their own community. This lack of clear information added to the anxiety of those already dealing with chronic health issues, like asthma and bronchitis, which are more common in their community due to the known risks of wildfire smoke. (Mehta, 2021) Managing these extra layers of risk becomes essential during evacuations. Trust is crucial for people to understand and believe the information they receive during emergencies. It also helps communities accept safety measures that can reduce risks. However, when it comes to prescribed burning, some people tend to be skeptical. About 18% of those surveyed believed that this practice caused wildfires, even though the actual rate is much lower at 2%. This shows how some folks remember the negative experiences more than the successful actions. Psychologists call this the "saliency effect," where negative events stand out more in our minds. (Mehta, 2021) Building trust in the information shared during emergencies and explaining the effectiveness of management actions is key to helping communities stay safe.

Description of Squamish Community Forest

Geographical Location

The Squamish Community Forest covers 11,303 hectares of land on the hillsides to the east and south of Squamish. It includes parts of the Shannon Creek, Raffuse Creek, Stawamus River, Cheekye River, Mashiter Creek, Ring Creek, and the lower Mamquam River watersheds. (Squamish Community Forest, 2023)

Local Tree Species and Local Wildfire Threat

In the study area, two main tree types have traits that help them cope with fires. Douglas-fir has thick bark, deep roots, and tall crowns, which help it endure surface fires. This tree also regrows easily after a fire. Lodgepole pine, while lacking fire-resistant traits, produces cones that open with heat, ensuring it can quickly grow back after a fire. The survival or return of these trees after a wildfire depends on the previous forest makeup, site features, and how the fire behaves. (Davis, 2007)

Research on wildfires has found that areas with leafed-out deciduous trees tend to have less intense fires. (Hely, 2001). This means that less land gets burned, and these areas can act like natural barriers, slowing down wildfires. The type of trees in a forest, specifically the conifer trees, has a big impact on how a fire behaves and how much land it burns. If there are more conifer trees, the fire is likely to be more intense, especially compared to areas with a mix of trees or mainly deciduous trees. (Fechner, 1976) In the boreal forest region of Canada, the absence of hardwood foliage in May, for instance, creates conditions conducive to increased fire behavior. This is due to factors like unrestricted penetration of solar radiation drying surface litter, lack of moisture in understorey vegetation, and unimpeded ground-level effects of wind speed affecting fine fuel moisture levels and flame front propagation. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017)

Economic History of Squamish Community

In the past, the Squamish economy relied on forestry, mining (Britannia Copper Mine), and agriculture. However, in recent years, the focus has shifted to outdoor recreation and eco-tourism, even though forestry still plays a vital role. Squamish Mills' dryland sort operation, near the town center by Howe Sound, gets timber from the Sea to Sky corridor. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017) Logging is a significant source of income in the Squamish community. The initial proposed annual timber harvest volume for the Squamish Community Forest is 20,000 cubic meters per year. (Squamish Community Forest, 2023) The Woodfibre Pulp Mill, the only mill in the region, is tasked with processing the harvested timber. Some specialty wood companies like AJ Forest Products, FraserWood Industries, and BC Timber Frame are also in the area. Additionally, Squamish Terminals ship cargo globally from a port at the Squamish River's mouth. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017)

Wildfire History

The Pemberton Fire Zone staff said that most of the past wildfires in the area were because of industrial logging and recreational activities. In the last 15 years, about 30 hectares burned, and 90% of that was from leftover materials from logging. These materials, called logging slash, are the most significant fire threat in the District. The Pemberton Fire Zone thinks the impact of past wildfires in the area has been relatively small. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017) Cutting down trees and leaving a lot of leftover branches and debris on the ground. A Research in Australia illustrates that logging activities, by leaving debris on the forest floor, increase the likelihood of wildfires as the accumulated debris serves as fuel, intensifying their severity. Logging practices not only increase the risk of fires but also change the way fires behave, affecting the areas around them. For instance, fires that start in places where trees have been cut down can spread into older forests and rainforests, causing problems for ecosystems that aren't used to dealing with frequent fires. (Lindenmayer, 2020)

In 2015, the Boulder Creek Complex wildfires burned more than 20,000 hectares and led to the evacuation of the Innergex independent power project facility. It also caused heavy smoke in the SLRD area and Metro Vancouver. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017). A research projects, in metro Vancouver area, the annual damages cost due to poor visibility caused by wildfire smoke range from nearly $1 million to over $58 million per year, totaling more than $120 million across all years, depending on the transfer technique and income adjustments. (Wolfgang, 2019) These wildfires, along with others in 2016 and 2017, made the BC Wildfire Service aware of the potential for big, destructive wildfires in and around the current area of interest.

Data from the BC Wildfire Service shows that a much larger portion of fires in the Squamish area were caused by humans compared to the entire province. In the Squamish study area, 87% of fires since 1950 were caused by humans, while the province's average is 55%. This could be because many people use the area for camping, and there are more people living there compared to the rest of the province. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017). Over 60% of all fires start because of things people do, like using campfires, kids playing with fire, intentional setting of fires (arson), random reasons, and smoking. The rest of the fires caused by people come from things like using machinery, setting fires on purpose, and activities related to railroads. Since there are way more fires caused by people than by lightning, it's really important to teach and enforce rules about fire safety. (Pashkowski, 2016)

Tenure Arrangement/Administrative arrangements

The Squamish Community Forest Agreement (CFA) is held by a partnership called Squamish Community Forest Limited Partnership. This partnership is a collaboration between Skwxwú7mesh Úxwumixw (Squamish Nation) and the District of Squamish. The LP's General Partner is Squamish Community Forest Corporation, and the Limited Partners are the District of Squamish and a company owned by Squamish Nation called SN Limited Partner Holdings Ltd. Squamish Community Forest Corporation is authorized to plan and manage the Community Forest on behalf of the Limited Partnership. The Board of the Squamish Community Forest Corporation will have an equal number of nominees from Squamish Nation and the District of Squamish. An interim board has been appointed initially. (Squamish Community Forest, 2023) The Squamish Nation and the District of Squamish working together helps them make decisions as a team with diverse perspectives and expertise. This teamwork can result in smart and complete plans to deal with wildfires. However, making decisions together might take more time, and this could cause delays in taking quick actions during a wildfire. Balancing the interests of Squamish Nation, the District of Squamish, and other stakeholders may lead to conflicts of interest. This could potentially postpone the swift execution of wildfire management plans. Acting fast is very important in wildfire situations.

Squamish Fire Rescue (SFR) is in charge of keeping the area safe from fires. They take care of emergencies in the District and help around 20,000 people who live there. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017) All day-to-day operations, planning, and activities of the Community Forest will be handled by Sqomish Forestry LP. This is a forestry management company fully owned by Squamish Nation. Sqomish Forestry LP will be responsible for managing the forest activities based on the Management Plan and strategic guidance from the Board. (Squamish Community Forest, 2023)

A Community Forest Advisory Group will be formed to connect the Community Forest Board with managers and community voices. The Advisory Group will include individuals representing various community interests, stakeholders, and First Nations, such as trail users and environmental groups. Members will be selected by the SQCF Corporation Board of Directors. The Advisory Group won't make management decisions but will provide information and input on management direction as advisors to the managers. (Squamish Community Forest, 2023) Even though the Community Forest Advisory Group gives helpful ideas by using professional knowledges, they might not have the power to make important decisions directly. This could make decisions take longer, especially during a wildfire crisis. The details of Advisory Group member selection, terms, roles, and responsibilities will be decided in the first year of the CFA license.

Affected Stakeholders

Squamish Nation:

Main Objectives:

Protecting and preserving their land, resources, and community well-being.
Implementing culturally sensitive and sustainable land management practices.
Collaborating on emergency response and community safety measures.

Relative Power : Significant. As an Indigenous community with direct ties to the land, they have considerable influence over decisions related to wildfire management affecting their territory.

Squamish River Watershed Society:

Main Objectives:

Restoring and maintaining the health of the Squamish River watershed.
Implementing measures to protect water quality and aquatic ecosystems.
Collaborating on conservation and environmental stewardship initiatives.

Relative Power : Moderate. While their focus is on water quality and ecosystems, their influence on wildfire management may be more indirect.

District of Squamish:

Main Objectives:

Ensuring community safety and well-being.
Implementing emergency response plans and infrastructure protection.
Collaborating with regional agencies for effective wildfire management.

Relative Power : Considerable. Local government has significant power in emergency response, evacuation plans, and community planning, especially in the face of a wildfire.

Sea to Sky Gondola:

Main Objectives:

Ensuring the safety and operation of the Sea to Sky Gondola.
Managing risks to infrastructure and visitor safety.
Collaborating with local authorities on emergency response planning.

Relative Power: Significant. The Sea to Sky Gondola holds power in ensuring the safety and continuity of its operations during a wildfire event.

BC Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development:

Main Objectives:

Managing and mitigating wildfire risks on public lands.
Implementing wildfire prevention and suppression measures.
Collaborating with local agencies and communities on coordinated wildfire response.

Relative Power : High. The ministry has significant power in wildfire management, including planning, prevention, and suppression, as well as coordinating efforts across the region.

Interested Stakeholders

Squamish Chamber of Commerce

Interest: Economic development and prosperity of the region, indirect impact on businesses due to wildfire

Power: Moderate. They can take part in the process of business rebuilding and incentive plan making with the governments after the wildfire events.

Tourism Squamish

Interest: Negative impact of wildfire on tourism activities and economic implications for the tourism industry.

Power: Moderate. They have rights to ask for more financial support of wildfire from higher level of the government.

Coast to Cascades Grizzly Bear Initiative

Interest: General interest in environmental conservation and wildlife preservation during wildfire events

Power: Limited.

Sea to Sky Invasive Species Council

Interest: Focus on invasive species management after the wildfire events, potential impact on the local ecosystem.

Power: Limited.

Squamish Trails Society

Interest: General interest in the development and maintenance of trails, potential impact on outdoor recreational activities.

Power: Moderate. They can take part in the process of firebreak plan making with the governments.

Power Analysis

The following table outlines stakeholders involved in wildfire management in the Squamish area, categorized based on their influence and importance. Recognizing the varying roles and responsibilities, stakeholders are grouped into four categories: those of high importance and high influence, high influence and low importance, low influence and high importance, and low influence and low importance. This classification aims to provide a strategic perspective on engaging and collaborating with stakeholders during wildfire incidents, considering their potential impact on decision-making and response efforts.

Table 1: Power Analysis of Stakeholders

	High Importance	Low Importance
High Influence	Squamish Nation Tsleil-Waututh Nation Musqueam Nation District of Squamish Squamish Lillooet Regional District BC Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development BC Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy BC Parks	Squamish Chamber of Commerce Tourism Squamish Coast to Cascades Grizzly Bear Initiative Sea to Sky Invasive Species Council Squamish & District Forestry Association School District 48 Quest University Coast Mountain Academy Sea to Sky Gondola
Low Influence	Squamish area residents Ring Creek residents Other private landowners Squamish Trails Society Squamish Access Society (SAS) Squamish River Watershed Society Squamish Streamkeepers The Future of Howe Sound Society Howe Sound Biosphere Region Initiative Society Howe Sound Community Forum	Trapline holders Mineral tenure holders Road permit holders Utility Right of Way holders Neighboring forest tenure holders Local forest-based businesses Other Crown tenure holders

Assessment of Current Wildfire Management Plan

Squamish Community Forest executes wildfire management approach by using District of Squamish Community Wildfire Protection Plan 2017 Update and Squamish-Lillooet Regional District Electoral Area D Community Wildfire Protection Plan 2016 Update. The 2015 Update to the Sea to Sky Resource District Fire Management Plan gives a plan for making smart decisions about fires. It helps the managers in the District know what to do to keep things safe. (Weber, 2022)

Fuel Management

The goal of fuel management is not necessarily to completely stop the fire but to reduce its intensity and limit the damage it causes. Methods for managing fuel may involve removing fuel, thinning out vegetation, and changing the composition of the forest. This approach has been proven effective in reducing the risk of wildfires in areas dominated by mixed wood or conifer trees. It is recommended to encourage a higher presence of deciduous trees. This involves selectively thinning the forest from the bottom, targeting the removal of conifer species while keeping broadleaf species. The success of these treatments relies on setting and enforcing fire management stocking standards within a 2km buffer of the Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI). Modified stocking standards play a crucial role in ensuring the effectiveness of these treatments and reducing the fire hazard. Deciduous trees, like aspen, have higher moisture content in their leaves and higher crown base height compared to coniferous species. They also have lower concentrations of flammable resins or essential oils, reducing the risk of sustained combustion. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017)

To keep forests safe from fires, making sure that the upper part of the trees (crown) doesn't cover more than 40% of the area. Small pieces of wood with a diameter less than 7 cm and big pieces with a diameter greater than 7 cm should be spread on the ground. The small ones should be less than 0.5 kg per square meter and cover less than 10% of the area. We should keep the larger logs to support biodiversity goals, providing a home for wildlife and serving as debris on the forest floor. It's important to remove new conifer trees and ladder-like fuels, except in small areas. Also, we need to decrease the amounts of dry leaves and twigs on the ground and make sure there's a mix of different trees in the treated area. Instead of doing the same thing everywhere, we should adapt our approach based on the specific conditions of each area. (Pashkowski, 2016).

Fuelbreaks

Fuelbreaks are like cleared paths strategically placed to help firefighters fight fires and allow safe access for crews during wildfires. They are often used to start controlled fires. These paths act as bases where firefighting teams can start their efforts, making it more likely to stop the fire. Even if the fire can't be stopped right away, fuelbreaks help reduce the fire's strength and behavior, lowering the chance of it spreading rapidly in certain areas. (Pashkowski, 2016) Primary Fuel Breaks are like protective barriers around a community. They can encircle the whole community or be smartly positioned to block the wind carrying the fire toward the community during fire season. These breaks are wide enough and have the right measures to stop the fire from spreading through treetops, making it move to the ground instead. It's usually suggested to have a 300-meter wide fuel break for effectiveness. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017)

Firesmart

FireSmart is a program designed to help homeowners and communities get ready for the danger of wildfires in areas where wildlands meet neighborhoods (WUI). Its goal is to make homes less likely to catch fire, either from direct flames, embers, or surface fires. The program focuses on creating safe zones around homes and structures, called defensible space, which lowers the risk of fire and makes it easier for firefighters to do their job safely and effectively. (Pashkowski, 2016) FireSmart is a widely accepted set of guidelines and practices across the country to reduce the damage caused by wildfires. It covers various aspects like assessing risks, planning at a regional level, setting policies, educating the public, managing vegetation, providing training and equipment, and preparing for emergencies. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017) Overall, FireSmart is a complex plan to make communities safer from the threat of wildfires, with the common goal of reducing the impact of these fires.

FireSmart fuel treatments are effective in reducing the risk of fires reaching and spreading from homes. These treatments involve altering vegetation around the home based on the distance from the structure. The approach is detailed in three priority zones. Zone 1, a 10-meter fuel-free area around the home, aims to prevent direct flame contact and reduce the risk of heat igniting the building. Zone 2, extending from 10 to 30 meters, focuses on widely spacing trees and avoiding crowns touching. Deciduous trees are preferred for their lower flammability. Pruning high and cleaning up flammable material in this zone help prevent ground fires from reaching the tree crowns. Zone 3, spanning 30 to 100 meters, addresses the spotting threat by emphasizing cleanup of surface fuels and pruning and spacing of trees to mitigate the transmission of fire through airborne embers. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017) These measures, outlined in the FireSmart Manual, provide a comprehensive strategy for safeguarding homes against wildfires.

Even though the Squamish District doesn't currently have an established FireSmart program, there's a varying level of FireSmart compliance among private properties. Different neighborhoods show differences in adopting FireSmart best practices, and landscaping practices vary across the area. In Paradise Valley, most homes lack a 10-meter defensible space, while downtown Squamish/Dentville has the highest FireSmart compliance according to the current policies. Field surveys in District neighborhoods observed varying wildfire hazard levels, with most hazards related to vegetation around homes. (B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd, 2017) New developments can benefit from educational approaches to promote fire-resistant landscaping and create defensible spaces. Hazards are more significant in some areas due to poor access and distance from water sources or fire hydrants.

Landscaping practices differed across study areas. In places like Black Tusk Village and Pinecrest Estates, private properties maintained a more natural state with fewer plantings. Homeowners in Black Tusk Village took some fuel mitigation measures, while Pinecrest Estates homes were densely vegetated, lacking FireSmart compliance. Ring Creek homes had mixed compliance, with some having cleared Priority Zone 1. Fire hazards increased when combustibles were stacked near structures. Squamish Valley and Paradise Valley homes, surrounded by non-hazardous fuels or agricultural fields, generally faced fewer risks. In Britannia Beach/Furry Creek, landscaping compliance varied, and cedar hedging, despite its flammability, remained popular. Most structures in Callaghan and Whistler Olympic Park areas were FireSmart compliant, especially in Priority Zone 1 landscaping. (Pashkowski, 2016)

Assessment of Current Laws and Local Bylaws

Wildfire Acts

In the Squamish community forest, where there's a high risk of wildfires from human activities, there are rules from the Wildfire Act to prevent fires. If anyone sees a fire left unattended in or near trees or grassy areas, they have to quickly tell the authorities or use the designated emergency hotline. People who aren't doing industrial work can't start open fires in these areas, and if they do, they need to stop it fast and report it. It's also not allowed to mishandle or drop burning stuff near forests, except for legal reasons. If someone breaks these rules, they have to put out the fire and whatever caused it as soon as possible to keep the risk of wildfires low. To ensure fire safety, the minister has the authority to announce restricted areas where unauthorized entry is not allowed, except for essential travel or specific operations. Additionally, the minister can limit or forbid certain activities or materials that could lead to the spread of fires in designated areas for a set period. (Wildfire Act, 2004)

Local Bylaws

When adding new plants or landscaping close to a building in the high-risk fire zone (within 10 meters), there are rules to make things safer. You can't use certain flammable plants like Juniper, Cedar, or Yew. Also, keep materials like bark mulch and fire-prone shrubs at least 1.5 meters away from the building's edge. For spacing, fire-prone shrubs should be planted with stems about 3 meters apart and at least 5 meters away from the trunks of fire-prone trees. Fire-resistant shrubs should be planted in between to break up any continuous rows. Trees should have at least 6 meters between trunks and should not be clustered with other fire-prone trees. There should be a 5-meter gap from the trunks of trees to the building. Green roofs also have rules. Grasses taller than 20 cm are not allowed, and certain plants like Juniper, Cedar, or Yew should be avoided. In shared living spaces with irrigation for fire-prone plants, there are some relaxed rules, like allowing closer spacing for shrubs if they are separated by fire-resistant plants. These rules aim to make landscaping safer, especially in areas at risk of wildfires. (District of Squamish Bylaw No.2834, 2021) The local bylaws also regulate wildfire prevention measures for complex buildings and road. In District Bylaw For complex buildings, a recommendation is made to have a fire risk assessment before building. The suggestion extends this requirement to standard buildings too. The assessment would focus on fuel modification, setbacks, building materials, and landscaping. A proposed bylaw would make it mandatory for developers to conduct this assessment and follow FireSmart recommendations. Regarding roads, a recommendation is made for clearer bylaws on the enhancement of road suitability for emergency vehicles. The proposal suggests referring to FireSmart guidelines for road dimensions. (Davis, 2007) These changes aim to enhance safety measures in local building and road regulations.

Discussion (Critical Issues and Recommendations)

Given the heightened wildfire risk in the Squamish Community Forest arising from human activities, I propose that the Squamish Community Forest initiates the formation of a dedicated group tasked with actively surveying the community forest area to identify potential wildfire risks. To execute these efforts, it is advisable for Squamish Fire Rescue and the local administrative team to deploy additional inspection groups into the area, increasing the frequency of inspections. This proactive approach will enhance the community's ability to detect and address wildfire threats promptly, contributing to a more effective wildfire management strategy. I noticed a deficiency in their current wildfire detection and sensory system, and I recommend incorporating the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) paradigm, widely employed for environmental monitoring, including wildfires. These sensor nodes play a crucial role in measuring ambient temperature, humidity, light, and barometric pressure to effectively detect fires. The appeal of utilizing nodes that support environmental sensing in WSN applications lies in their cost-effectiveness, low power consumption, and straightforward implementation, making them a preferable choice compared to alternative methods. (Doolin, 2005)

Conflicts of interest in governance present a notable disadvantage as the need to balance the interests of diverse stakeholders, including Squamish Nation, the District of Squamish, and economic entities, can impede swift decision-making processes. The complex web of competing interests may pose challenges during emergencies, potentially delaying urgent actions. To address this, it is advisable to implement proactive mechanisms for conflict resolution. Establishing a conflict resolution framework can facilitate effective collaboration among stakeholders, promoting transparent discussions and timely decision-making, especially in emergency situations. By enhancing open communication channels and providing a structured approach to conflict resolution, the governance structure can navigate challenges more efficiently, ensuring that the varied interests are considered without compromising the speed and effectiveness of decision-making processes. Perhaps the administration could reduce the current count of administrative members who can decide during emergencies. Also, they could give more decision-making power to advisory groups in their specific areas of knowledge. This way, the approach to managing wildfires can be more flexible and responsive.

In Squamish Community Forest area, how well we manage wildfires is affected because not everyone follows the FireSmart rules for safety on their properties and in different neighborhoods. When people don't all stick to these guidelines, it can be risky for the safety of the whole community. As mentioned above, while some areas, such as downtown Squamish/Dentville, exhibit higher FireSmart compliance, In the remote areas, there’s very low Firesmart compliance. Others, like Paradise Valley, lack a 10-meter defensible space around homes. Black Tusk Village and Pinecrest Estates maintain a more natural state with fewer plantings, whereas Britannia Beach/Furry Creek residents, despite varying compliance, often favor flammable cedar hedging. These differences in landscaping practices and FireSmart compliance underscore the need for standardized regulations and proactive measures across all neighborhoods. Implementing and enforcing consistent FireSmart guidelines, along with incentivizing homeowners to adopt these practices, can contribute significantly to enhancing community resilience against the threat of wildfires. Regular assessments and adjustments to guidelines can ensure that evolving communities address wildfire risks effectively.

Weather-related challenges, such as low humidity and strong winds, can worsen wildfire risks and make management more difficult. To address this, it's essential to improve early warning systems for extreme weather conditions. This involves investing in technology and resources that can help minimize the impact of adverse weather on wildfire behavior. Another challenge is the limited historical data for new developments, which may hinder accurate wildfire risk assessments and preparedness. To overcome this, it is recommended to conduct proactive risk assessments for new developments using broader regional data. Additionally, consider adapting FireSmart guidelines to meet the specific needs of evolving communities. This comprehensive approach aims to enhance overall wildfire management strategies.

Other suggestions include, making it easier for firefighters to get to wildfires involves understanding that access roads do two jobs—they can stop fires from spreading and help firefighters reach the flames. Even though trails used for fun might not be the best at stopping fires, they can still help firefighters reach the fire on the ground. Thinking about making new trails in far-off places for firefighting is also a good idea. When it comes to fighting fires, having enough water is super important. Figuring out where helicopters can get water and where the firefighting crews can get water is key. Putting fire hydrants in the right spots in new neighborhoods, especially in places where fires are more likely, is a smart move. To stop fires from starting in the first place, we need to gather information about fires caused by people. Sharing info about places where fires caused by people happen a lot is important. Teaching people in those places about fire safety is a good idea too. And, we need to look at things like power lines, railways, and what people do that might start fires, and find ways to make those things safer. (Davis, 2007) All these steps together help make sure we're ready to prevent and fight wildfires.

References

1. B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd. (2017). District of Squamish Community Wildfire Protection Plan 2017 Update. District of Squamish. https://squamish.ca/assets/Uploads/3623dfd744/2017-District-of-Squamish-CWPP-Update.pdf

2. Bidani A, Wang C Z and Heming T A. (1998). Cotton smoke inhalation primes alveolar macrophages for tumor necrosis factor-α production and suppresses macrophage antimicrobial activities. Lung. 176 325–36

3. British Columbia Ministry of Forests. (2022). 2022 Wildfire Season Summary.

https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/about-bcws/wildfire-history/wildfire-season-summary#:~:text=Despite%20the%20late%20drought%20conditions,133%2C437%20hectares%20of%20area%20burned

4. CBC News. (2023). 2023 is now officially the most expensive, most destructive wildfire season on record in B.C. CBC News.

https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/wildfire-danger-reducing-1.6980041#:~:text=On%20Thursday%2C%20the%20B.C.%20government,year%20to%20be%20%24966%20million.

5. Davies, J., & Coulthard, M. (2007). District of Squamish Community Wildfire Protection Plan. Squamish Fire Rescue Department. https://squamish.ca/assets/Land-Use-Policies/03e64b320a/Community-Wildfire-Protection-Plan.pdf

6. District of Squamish. bylaw No. 2834. Wildfire Landscaping Management Bylaw. (2021). s 4. https://squamish.civicweb.net/filepro/documents/19302/?preview=211681

7. Doolin D.M. and Sitar, N. (2005) Wireless sensors for wildfire monitoring. In Proceedings of Conference on Sensors and Smart Structures Technologies for Civil, Mechanical, and Aerospace Systems, San Diego, CA, USA, 7–10 March 2005, 477–484.

8. Fechner, Gilbert H.; Barrows, Jack S. (1976). Aspen stands as wildfire fuel breaks. Eisenhower Consortium Bulletin 4. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 26 p. In cooperation with: Eisenhower Consortium for Western Environmental Forestry Research.

9. Fitzgerald, K. T., & Flood, A. A. (2006). Smoke Inhalation. Clinical Techniques in Small Animal Practice. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ctsap.2006.10.009

10. Hély, C., Flannigan, M., Bergeron, Y., & McRae, D. (2001). Role of vegetation and weather on fire behavior in the Canadian mixedwood boreal forest using two fire behavior prediction systems. Canadian journal of forest research, 31(3), 430-441.

11. Kirchmeier-Young, M. C., Gillett, N. P., Zwiers, F. W., Cannon, A. J., & Anslow, F. S. (2018). Attribution of the Influence of Human-Induced Climate Change on an Extreme Fire Season. Earth’s Future. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2018EF001050

12. Lindenmayer, D.B., Kooyman, R.M., Taylor, C. (2020). Recent Australian wildfires made worse by logging and associated forest management. Nat Ecol Evol 4, 898–900. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-1195-5

13. Mehta, M. D., Gardner, W., Heshka, J., McKenzie, W., Boutaib, M., & Edge, J. (2021). A life cycle-based model to risk and crisis communication during wildfire events in British Columbia. Thompson Rivers University. https://arcabc.ca/islandora/object/tru%3A5655/datastream/PDF/view

14. Nellas Joanne, Parmar Devan, Simoes Michael. (2018). Wildfire crisis in British Columbia. Salmon Fraser University. https://mapthesystem.sbs.ox.ac.uk/files/sfu-map-system-visual-mappdf

15. Pashkowski, T., Blackwell, B. (2016). Squamish-Lillooet Regional District Electoral Area D Community Wildfire Protection Plan 2016 Update. Squamish-Lillooet Regional District. https://www.slrd.bc.ca/sites/default/files/reports/SLRD_CWPP_AREA_D_FINAL.pdf

16. Sanderfoot, O. V., Bassing, S. B., Brusa, J. L., Emmet, R. L., Gillman, S. J., Swift, K., & Gardner, B. (2022). A review of the effects of wildfire smoke on the health and behavior of wildlife. Environmental Research Letters. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac30f6/meta#erlac30f6s4

17. Somov, A. (2011). Wildfire safety with wireless sensor networks. EAI Endorsed Transactions on Ambient Systems, 1(1).

https://eudl.eu/pdf/10.4108/trans.amsys.2011.e4

18. Squamish Community Forest. (2023). Squamish Community Forest.

https://squamishcommunityforest.org/

19. Weber, S., Litz, A., & Fisher, J. (2022). Management Plan #1 Squamish Community Forest Community Forest Agreement K5Y. Squamish Community Forest. https://squamishcommunityforest.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/SQCF-Management-Plan-February-2022_signed.pdf

20. Wildfire Act, SBC 2004, c P-31 (2004). https://www.bclaws.gov.bc.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/04031_01#section104

21. Wolfgang Haider, Duncan Knowler, Ryan Trenholm, Jeff Moore, Phil Bradshaw, & Ken Lertzman. (2019). Climate change, increasing forest fire incidence, and the value of visibility: evidence from British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/cjfr-2018-0309