Course:Recurring Questions of Technology/Keywords/S T
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
S
Screens
Derived from French (écran), this keyword indicates, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, “A contrivance for warding off the heat of a fire or a draught of air.” (OED). Its first usage in the English language was in the late 14th century, “Unum skreu ferreum.” It has taken over 500 years for this keyword to adopt a meaning that is more readily used in the contemporary field of technology. In 1948, the term ‘Screen time’ was introduced, and was used to describe “The time allotted to or occupied by a film or television production.” It is this usage of the word that scholars of today employ to describe a wide range of current technological devices with screens including, but not limited to, televisions, cell phones, laptops, and computers. William F. Pinar, in his article “Modernity, Technology, Nationality” describes this new phenomenon as an obsession, so to speak, that has both fulfilled and consumed our lives, “Such secular salvation punctuates the steady stream of searching, our constant craving refocused first from God to the public sphere, now to the screens in front of us, screens that stare back at faces transfixed as if by the presence of God.” In a related article, “The First Task of Thought in Our Time” also by William F. Pinar, he states, “Now humanity stares at screens.” Implied in this message is a radical shift in the way that society, most notably in North America, uses technology in their everyday lives. In a recent study by Laurson, Eisenmann, Welk, Wickel, Gentile, & Walsh (2008) called, “Combined Influence of Physical Activity and Screen Time Recommendations on Childhood Overweight”, it used the keyword ‘screen time’ to describe time spent in front of the television or playing video games. As expected, children who spent more time in front of screens and less time participating in physical activity were more likely to be overweight. (Robert Young)
Sexting
The term sexting is such a new word that it has not yet been added to the Oxford English Dictionary. Sexting is a play on words that originates from texting, the sending of a text message between individuals through cellular telephone devices. In this sense, sexting was defined and used by Salemma Noon in today’s class lecture on ‘Texting, Sexting and Internet Porn’ (July 11, 2011) to refer to the “sending of graphic sexual texts or photos through phones.” Sexting is such a new word because it was created through the advancement of technology and the increased proliferation of smart phones which enable easy access to the internet as well capabilities to instantly take, send and receive picture and text messages. When describing her educational programs on her website, Salemma Noon states that there are “racy song lyrics on the radio, girls being sexualized at younger and younger ages in the media, commercials for Viagra on TV during after school hours, pornography on the internet, sexting on cell phones…” (http://www.saleemanoon.com) which are all issues that needs to be discussed openly between children, their parents and educators. To further prove her point that education around sexting is vital, Noon shared the statistic that “30% of teens have reported in participating in sexting by sending a naked or near naked photo to a crush” (Texting, Sexting and Internet Porn, July 11, 2012). Sexting is problematic because not only does it allow children as young as Grades six and seven to view sexual and graphic photographs, but it also enables them to create and send the images. In "When Sex and Cell Phones Collide: Inside the Prosecution if a Teen Sexting Case" Robert Richards and Clay Calvert (2009) “provide an inside and in-depth examination of one sexting case” and highlight the consequences faced by one teenager who shared a ‘sext’. As a result of distributing and sharing the sexting that occurred between him and his girlfriend, he was convicted and charged with child pornography and is now registered as a sex offender. Although the word is not included in the Oxford English Dictionary, its use has been similar in all of the contexts mentioned above. The word sexting was included in Urban Dictionary as of December 2008 and a similar definition can be found at oxfroddictionaries.com. (Katie Carr)
Smart Use
Smart use combines two words, both of which are among the earliest entries in the Oxford English Dictionary. Use has a huge range of meanings most of which relate to the utilization or employment or application of something; the act of putting something to work. Use can also mean the skill of correctly handling something. Smart has meant the sharp pain of wounds, or sorrow, for many centuries; an action described as smart has meant painful. It is an American use of smart to mean clever, capable, adept as applied to people. Not until the 1970's was the term applied to devices. Currently, smart use is a term that is used in describing how technology will be implemented in a variety of settings. In their paper Beyond the Digital Divide: Rethinking digital inclusion for the 21st century Selwyn and Facer (2007) talk of making the best use of technology where "smart use is defined as making use of technologies as and when appropriate." In some cases, smart use is meant to be seen as using technology in an advantageous way, rather than just the correct way. In the BC Education Plan, the Education Ministry states, "BC’s Education Plan will encourage smart use of technology in schools, better preparing students to thrive in an increasingly digital world. The term is also used in software design. Sander Hoogendoorn shows the way smart use case is used in software architecture. "A (smart) use case is a description of a system's behaviour as it responds to a request that originates from outside that system. In other words, a [smart] use case describes who can do what with the system in question." This term as applied to the use of technology has different shades of meaning, but as the term smart is increasingly applied to devices, it is likely to continue to apply to their use as well. It is interesting that the earlier meaning of smart - painful - provides such an opposite, and perhaps cautionary point of view, when applied to the implementation of technology. (Pauline Veto)
Social Media
Websites and applications which enable users to create and share content or to participate in social networking (OED). These applications have grown from ‘the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0’ and focus around the ‘creation and exchange of user-generated content’ (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). Though the origin of the term has been debated, usage grew with the rise in popularity of Internet applications that allowed users to interact with each other. Today, there are a large number of both web spaces and technologies that are classified as social media: blogs and microblogs (Twitter), instant messaging (MSN), media content communities (YouTube, Flikr), massive collaborative content creation (Wikipedia), and virtual worlds or games (Second Life, World of Warcraft) are some examples. However, when most users think of social media, it is one specific type, social network(ing) sites, that come to mind. While social networking sites vary in form and function, though there are several defining characteristics. First, they consist of profiles, unique pages created by users sharing descriptors such as name, age, interests, and a personal photo. Second, users articulate a list of other users with whom they share a relationship (colloquially known as ‘friends’, though the term in this context is acknowledged to have somewhat of a different meaning than it does in regular use). Finally, other users can view these friendships; it is these public displays of connection that put the ‘network’ in social networking (Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship, boyd & Ellison, 2007). Most SNSs then allow users to connect with friends in a variety of ways and through a variety of media. Facebook, MySpace, Tumblr, and Pinterest are popular examples of this type of site. These sites are also the most popular type of social media with young people: overall, 83% report using these sites (Pew Internet Report: Social Media and Young Adults), though rates of participation closer to 95% are routinely found amongst college students and most of these users visit the sites daily, if not multiple times per day (ECAR Study of Undergraduate Students and Information Technology 2010, Smith & Caruso). (Ashley Shaw)
Standardized Testing
The root word “standard” was derived from Old French in the mid-12c. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its first usage was used to indicate a flag, sculptured figure, or other conspicuous object, raised on a pole to indicate the rallying-point of an army (OED). This is reflected in the Anglo-Saxon Chroonicle a1160 “Him [sc. king David of Scotland] com to gænes Willelm eorl of Albamar..mid fæu men &..flemden þe king æt te Standard.” The meaning of this keyword has transformed throughout history to reflect the more common usage of today – an authoritative or recognized exemplar of correctness, perfection, or some definite degree of any quality. “OED”. This usage of the word is where the educational context of standardized tests derived its meaning from. It is interesting to note in Benjamin Elman’s article (2002), “A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China”, that although the first usage of the word was in the mid-12c, evidence reveals that China used standardized testing as early as the 6th century CE, during the Sui Dynasty. More currently, Douglas Reeves discusses the use of standardized tests as one of the “challenging problems of assessment,” in his article “A Framework for Assessing 21st Century Skills”. He expands on this notion by arguing that standardized tests are an outdated and insufficient means to measure student learning, and will never be compatible with 21st century learning. Possibly as a reaction to this current wave of thinking, the “British Columbia Ministry of Education” announced that it would no longer offer optional provincial exams as of the 2011/12 school year. (Robert Young)
Sub-activism
Rooted within the word activism, the prefix "sub" denotes its occurrence situated within or occuring under, below, or at the bottom of another form of activism. Activism, refers to engagement within a chosen activity (i.e. protest, demonstration) which strives to bring about goals that may be political, social, environmental or otherwise. Used in the context of social media, Bakardjieva (2009) describes sub-activism as "sub-merged and subjective... small-scale, often individual decisions and actions that have either a political or ethical frame of reference (or both) and remain submerged in everyday life". According to Poyntz, who spoke at UBC's Recurring Questions of Technology Institute (2012), sub-activism may not lead to to full political engagement, but may begin relationships or connect people to ideas with which they would not have otherwise engaged. The hyper-connectedness, links, and personal networks such as socia media platforms like Facebook and Twitter expose users to unknown articles, opinions, events, videos, etc. According to Bocking (2012) sub-activism can include signing an online petition, sending emails, or reading and responding to political blogs. A recent example was the Kony 2012 Campaign which demonstrated how organizations or people in general, can catch the attention of others, causing them to engage with unfamiliar information. The Kony 2012 video went viral on many social platforms, including Facebook, and within 24 hours of its release, the video had received 800,000 hits online. Within six days it had 112 million views, becoming the fastest spreading video of all time Kligler-Vilenchik, McVeigh-Schultz, Weitbretch, and Tokuhama (2012). (Jennifer Barker)
Surveillance
The word is derived from French "surveiller" which consists of two morphemes, namely, "sur" (over) and "veiller" (derived from Latin "vigilare" (to watch). In its simplest definition, surveillance means to watch over a person or a group of persons. However, it is important to note, that its etymology implies that the watching is done "especially over a suspected person, a prisoner, or the like" (OED). Martin Heidegger theorized that in all matters of technological advancement, the question of das Man must be addressed. That is, "the they" that seem always to be watching and which has an authority which should be challenged. In a 1995 report produced by the U.S. Congress on "Electronic Surveillance in a Digital Age", U.S. Congress views electronic surveillance as an invaluable tool in America’s arsenal to fight crime and terrorism in this era of high-speed, global communications. CBC News (Feb 20, 2012) also reported that many of Canada's police chiefs supported the federal government's proposed law that would help investigators track people's online communications. Adeline Guerra, in the article entitled "Living in a Digial Age Surveillance Society" argues that in this digital age, we need to be concerned about how easily we can be traced by the increasing number of public space surveillance cameras, credit card information, satellite GPS equipment and any electronic data-related activities. More and more people, especially the young, have online versions of themselves via social media like Facebook and Twitter, which help them to connect and communicate. The new generation is now more exposed to be surveilled than ever but few have contemplated the consequences of being so transparent online. The ability for people not only to protect their privacy but also to question the borders between private and public is at stake as a matter of technological literacy. Theresa Dobson's work reminds us to pay attention to and question all forms of text as knowledge, information and/or data. This type of contemplation might help us to analyze the relationship between forms of text, their digitization and the public/private dualism. (Peck San Wong & Maxx Lapthorne)
System
Derived from Latin (systēma: a musical interlude) and Greek (sustēma: organized whole) and used, in academic circles, across an ever widening range of disciplines – music, government, physiology, more recently astronomy, linguistics, philosophy, to name a few – and in other modern languages: German (das System), French, (le système), and Spanish (el sistema), certainly befitting a plurilingual and globalized world. First used in English in the early seventeenth century to indicate how things are organized ("The yeare is a systeme of foure seasons," J. Mede, 1638). In the intellectual property realm, Yochai Benkler describes in the Wealth of Networks (2006) the emergence of the “information production system,” as he uses system to refer to an organized grouping of interconnected elements that end up generating facts and ideas in a regular and orderly way as part of “the public sphere,” which he alternately refers to as the “new networked information economy.” In the digital humanities, Teresa Dobson and colleagues (Interactive visualizations, 2011) reveal how the structures that infuse narratives can be helpfully represented through a systems approach to visualizations that highlight spatial relations and patterns that signify how a work of literature unfolds. Here it is the visualization mechanism itself which constitutes the system that allows users to generate displays of interconnected narrative elements. Also working within the systems of literature, Franco Moretti (2000) discusses "world literature" as “a planetary system” to emphasize the dynamic links that create an order out of this mass of texts. Moretti explicitly refers to the literary system as a “network,” echoing Benkler’s adjectival reference to system as “networked,” bringing us back to the notion of interconnectedness and perhaps blurring the meaning of system as merely a unitary static whole. Ultimately, what stands out in these recurring uses of system is the value of teasing out and naming the ordered, dynamic, and interactive relationships among the parts, as well as characterizing the specific nature of the whole, as Benkler, for example, however inelegantly, by using "nonproprietary and nonmarket production" to characterize the new richness of networks. (Meike Wernicke-Heinrichs & John Willinsky)
T
Technology
Technology is derived from post classical Latin "technologia" to mean a treatise on the liberal arts (1607), and also to mean the systemic treatment of grammar (1612 or earlier). In a second sense, perhaps after French technologie (1656 in this sense; the other senses of the English word are apparently not paralleled in French until later: discourse or treatise on arts (1750)), branch of knowledge dealing with the mechanical arts and applied sciences (1803), technical know-how, machinery or equipment collectively (both mid-20th cent. or earlier). Also, after German Technologie (second half of the 18th cent. in this sense; earlier in sense ‘terminology, also the systematic study of this’ (1735); subsequently (probably after English) in senses ‘branch of knowledge dealing with the transformation of raw materials into finished products in industry and manufacturing’ (19th cent.), ‘technological know-how’ (20th century or earlier)(OED). In The Wealth of Networks, Benkler notes that while much emphasis is being placed on the value of technology (particularly networked information technologies), there is guarantee that technology will lead to improvements in innovation, freedom and justice - values the author holds in high regard. He sees technology as being neither deterministic nor wholly malleable, but still able to set parameters around individual and social actions. Different patterns of adoption and use of various technologies result in very different social relations (Benkler, p, 17-18). In her Massey Lecture series, experimental physicist Ursula Franklin discusses technology as a multifaceted entity that has reordered and restructured social relations between individuals, groups, nations and human interaction with the environment. As Franklin sees it, technology has built the house in which we all live - a building that is continuously being extended and remodeled – and we must have some knowledge of the past and give some thought to the future in order to better understand how technologies become entrenched in our social landscape (p. 4). An understanding such as this can make space for people to be more aware of the subtle side-effects technologies can have, and can perhaps allow for the benefits of technologies to be accessed in a more direct way. (Alison Krahn)
Temporality
Late Latin temporālitās (Tertullian), < temporāl-is , TEMPORAL adj.1 and n.1 : see -ITY suffix. Substituted in 14–15th cent. For temperalté. The quality or condition of being temporal or temporary; temporariness; relation to time. First use in 1635, E. RAINBOW Labour 11 Though in the act of our labours…we place temporality, yet ought we alwayes before our intentions to set æternity (OED). Traditionally, temporality is seen as a linear procession of past, present and future, but certain modern philosophers (such as Grant) consider temporality in different ways (Class lecture, July 13, 2012). Grant conceived of time as history, and humans as historical beings: “the fact that existing is a coming to be and a passing away (Grant, 1995, p.13). According to Forbes, for good or ill, temporality enfolds human beings and we experience this temporality as history (2007, p.103). Within this framework, Grant explains that we will not be leading fully human lives if we conceive of time as history: “Everything is enfolded in ‘it was,’ ‘it is’ and ‘it will be.’ And as we recognize that inescapable temporality in every live minute, we can will to batter against its inevitable consequences…Consciousness always includes within itself ‘it was.’ Human life would not be possible without some memory. But the will can do nothing about the past. What has happened has happened, we cannot change it (1995, 53). In this understanding of temporality, those who subscribe to it will abandon the traditional idea that humankind can attain knowledge of ‘eternal realities,’ such as a fixed or absolute idea of right and wrong – the same applies to the idea of progress, whose meaning will change from one era to the next (Forbes, 2007). (Alison Krahn)
Textuality
Text is derived from Old Northern French tixte, tiste meaning Scriptures. In the late 14th century, textual is from Latin textus meaning the wording of anything written and the style or texture of a work. Textual first appears in English in Chaucer’s Manciple’s Tale in 1386 (“But for I am a man, not textueel I wol noght telle tetes neuer a deel”). In The dictionary of human geography, 5th Edition (2009) Derek Gregory, Ron Johnston and Geraldine Pratt refer to the term textuality as a Post-Structuralism literary theory. Textuality is an expansion of text to “include practices and material productions such as architectural forms and Landscapes that may be read for meaning, connotation, and contestation” (p 751). As such textuality is indecidable, the meaning is fluid depending on word placement and interpretation. Katherine Hayles says that the way we are able to navigate a text has as much an impact on the meaning of that text as the text itself (Translating Media: Why We Should Rethink Textuality, 2003). She asks us to pay attention to the difference between the print page and coded electronic screen in ways that affect textuality. Hayes notes that although the very process of transforming print page to electronic literature may change a reader’s interpretation of that text, electronic literature also offers other forms of functionalities that can enhance textuality. In electronic literature the focus shifts from words alone to a broader range of possibilities that include multimodal capabilities. In Introduction: Popular Textualities (2007), Kenneth Womack shares that at up until 100 years ago, text and narrative came via books, magazines and newspapers. Within the last century new technologies arrived such radio, cinema, television and most recently computers. These technologies have altered textualities. (Jen Erickson)
Tradition
The word tradition originated in the late 14th century from the old French words ‘tradicion’ (Online Etymology Dictionary) and with time the definition has come to mean “the action of transmitting or ‘handing down,” or fact of being handed down, from one to another from generation to generation” (OED). Traditions are commonly related to rituals and beliefs that permeate throughout society that originated in the past but are still maintained in the present. (Wikipedia) In “Time as History” by George Grant (1969) he discusses the notion that technology has, and will continue to, change the ways in which people live their daily lives as well as the traditions that they hold dear to them. In the editor’s introduction of Grant’s book, it is stated that “in the older tradition, a “truth’ was an affirmation about existence. In the modern tradition, truth was a value and value was something created by human beings” (p. xxii). In this sense, God and faith is being referenced as the traditions and beliefs that used to be passed from one generation to another. However, with the increased pervasiveness of technology within modern society, and the values created by humans, traditions are now being created and changed. Further to this notion, in his paper “[First Task of Thought in Our Time]” William Pinar states that “the conservation of tradition is threatened by technology’s limitless expansiveness” (p. 14). Within the class discussions of the Recurring Questions of Technology (July 13, 2012) the notion that technology has become ubiquitous and always all around us was elaborated on. The advancements made by technology has made humanity depend so much on it that people will now feel naked without carrying their cell phones. Today it is almost impossible to escape or live without technology and therefore it is possible that our traditions are constantly changing or being recreated as a result of technology. (Katie Carr)
Transformation
Derived from late Latin (transformātiōn-em n. of action from transformāre to transform v.) meaning the action of transforming or fact of being transformed. Although this is the primary meaning as in a changing in form, shape, or appearance, secondary meanings extend to and can include a complete change in character, condition, etc.; change of form without alteration of quantity or value as in math; change of a current into one of different potential, or different type, or both as in electricity. This keyword is certainly not limited to the aforementioned disciplines as its usage can also be found in theatre, physics, molecular biology, cytology, zoology, physiology, pathology and linguistics. It was first used in English in the early fourteenth century in a religious context regarding the change which occurred to the soul when worshiping - or in the presence of the divine nature of - God ("In transfourmynge of þe saule in þe Godhede," R. Rolle, 1340). Regarding the dissemination of information, knowledge and culture in the current networked information environment, Yochai Benkler in the Wealth of Networks (2006) asserts that due to this new environment and the associated technological changes we are seeing the start of a "series of economic, social and cultural adaptations" that will initiate a "radical transformation" of that same information environment we currently occupy. Furthermore, if this transformation occurs traditional invested producers of information, culture and communication will see a "substantial redistribution of power and money" and the renegotiation of freedom, justice and productivity in this changed information environment. One can see issues of property and rights which have risen as a product of this transformation in the trials of Napster and file sharing in general. The changing face and alleged decline of the recording industry as we knew it attests to Benkler's redistribution principles. The last video store in Coquitlam closed its doors last week. On the subject of intellectual property, John Willinsky during his lecture "Medieval and Modern Notions of Intellectual Properties of Learning Technology" (Vancouver, July 9, 2012) discussed the transformation of what was once private property, through endowment, being given to the commons or for the common good as a feudal lord may have given lands to form a monastery which in turn pursued education - the right of private property given for "fair use" contributing to the public good. Similarly during his lecture "Education’s Intellectual Properties" (Vancouver, July 9, 2012), he later described the transformation of John Locke's property principles into intellectual property rights benefiting the private subsequently being given, endowed or extended to intellectual properties of learning whereby those works are intended to improve the commons. Even though the common good seems to be a worthy motivation, rights holders can and do withhold their grant. If the common good is non-profit, is it notions of privileged ownership which preclude benefaction? (Jim Shaw)