Course:Recurring Questions of Technology/Keywords/I J
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
I
Identity
The noun identity comes from the Middle French word identité and was originally defined as the quality or condition of being the same. With time the meaning of the word morphed to portray a sense of individuality or personality and can be defined as “who or what a person or thing is; a distinct impression of a single person or thing presented to or perceived by others; a set of characteristics or a description that distinguishes a person or thing from others.” (OED). In this sense, identity is what separates one person from another; it makes each individual unique and their own person. Identity is shaped by a person’s personality, beliefs, values and their conceived notions of what creates their individuality and image of themselves. In “The Internet and Subactivism: Cultivating Young Citizenship in Everyday Life” Maria Bakardjieva (2010) points out that “the identity of an individual is never unitary, homogenous and fixed, but always in a flux.” The creation of one’s identity is a two way process that is ongoing and never completed and is “produced by using the resources of history, language and culture” (Bajardjieva, 2010). Identity is important to many people as it helps to define who they are, what makes them special and also shapes how other people view, think of and will remember the individual. In class, Stuart Poyntz (Tuesday July 11, 2012) discussed how identity is something that is created and manifested every day. The formation of one’s identity can be difficult for youth in today’s culture because the social media (such as blogs, facebook and twitter) creates new spaces in which they are charged with projecting the identity and image of one’s self. Within the virtual world, youth are feeling pressure to portray themselves in different ways depending on the media they are interacting with and who their audience is. Further to the discussion in class, Gee, Allen and Clinton (2001) discuss how the language patterns of youth changes depending on the ways in which they are trying to create and portray their identity. (Katie Carr)
Immaterial Labour
Both the introduction to Games of Empire (Dyer-Witheford & Peuter, 2009) and the essay “Putting Consumers to Work” (Zwick, Bonsu, & Darmody, 2008), draw from a common heritage in their use of the term of immaterial labour. Popularized in Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri's Empire triology (2000, 2004, 2009), dating back to work in the journal Futur Antérieur (1990–1998), the term means to signify changes in the ontology of labour associated with shifts in Western production following the collapse of Fordism (Hardt and Negri trace this collapse to post-war proletarian and anti-capitalist attacks). More thoroughly explained in the former than the latter, immaterial labour is the “labour that produces the informational, cultural, or affective element of the commodity,” which need not be physical. (Virno and Negri, 1996; cited in Dyer-Witheford & de Peuter, 2009). After Fordism, the productive capacity of workers dispersed beyond the factory walls. The labour power of workers that valorizes the commodity form of the object, tangible or intangible, is, similarly, no longer only that of waged labour. Indeed, capital has found new ways news to commodify human action. Crucially, for Dyer-Witheford & de Peuter and Zwick and colleagues, “competencies (increasingly centered around cognitive, cultural, linguistic, and affective capabilities) that are freely available to any social individual who is a member of the specific form of sociality constituted by capital,” (Zwick, Bonsu and Darmody 178) or, the general intellect of social producers, are posited as a form of labour from which value may be extracted. Under conditions of post-modern production, as Hardt and Negri put it, immaterial labour is the qualitatively dominant form of production. (Matthew Greaves)
Implementation
Apparently derived from Latin (implēmentum: a filling up) taken in the sense of ‘that which serves to fill up or stock' (a house, etc.) and of Old French (emplement: to fill, fill up). Godefroy cites only one example, in sense ‘filling up, fulfilling, completing’. These earlier definitions are taken from the noun, with the later root verb use first coming into effect in the early nineteenth century ("This was an obligation incumbent upon him, which the petitioners were entitled to insist that he should implement," Petit. T. Gillies of Balmakewan, 1806). The first use of implementation with the associated meaning of the action of implementing or fulfillment was over a hundred years later ("The Irish delegation will seek the implementation of co-equality with the States of the British Commonwealth," Spectator, 1926). In regard to twenty-first century learning and technological literacies, Joke Voogt & Natalie Pareja Roblin in their article "A comparative analysis of international frameworks for 21st century competences: Implications for national curriculum policies" (21012) compare recommended strategies for the implementation of student skills associated with emerging competences in this unprecedented era of interactive and integrated technology. In examining the implications of new competences in national curriculum policies and how best to integrate, consideration must be given to the coherence between intentions and implementation. Questions of 'How can ICT - information communication technologies - best support the implementation of twenty-first century competences?' are not only relevant but integral to any and all movement in this direction. Who will have vested interests in the public–private partnerships and with what intention? During his lecture "Twenty-first Century Learning" (Vancouver, July 11, 2012), Chris Kennedy addressed the place of these competences in the school curriculum and the role of teachers and teacher professional development. Technology should be integrated with relevancy to these new literacies for improved curriculum development and learning not just for the sake of technological consummation and assimilation alone. He could not overstress the need for real time engagement such as synchronous communication - chat - on a blog site or global skype conversation for example, being cogent integration of technology educators need to facilitate. (Jim Shaw)
Incentive
Incentive is derived from the Latin word (incentiv-us, the tune, inciting), Latin (incendĕre to kindle, set on fire) and Latin (incentīvum, something that arouses feeling). TR. R. Higden used the Latin use of incentīvum as early as the 15th Century; thus extending the meaning to something that provides “incites to action or motive” (Oxford English Dictionary). Commonly used today, in regards to how society uses bargaining tools as a form for motivation and accessibility, incentives, according to Bengt Holmstrom and Paul Milgrom’s article (1991) Multitask Principal-Agent Analysis: Incentive Contracts, Asset Ownership and Job Design, enforces power and control over the job done, and for engagement in production. Moreover, they state that incentives are most powerful when used in one of the following ways: “either the task itself can be rewarded or the marginal opportunity cost for the task can be lowered by removing or reducing the incentives on competing tasks.” However, according to the Wealth of Networks , by Yochai Benkler (2006), technology, economic organization, and varying social practices are changing the way people work and the way information is exchanged; thus, the usage of incentives are changing. Technology, open source and the open accessof texts and resources have minimized the need for incentives- consequently, making property more readily available to those looking to access it. (Sydney Mitchell)
Individual
The Oxford English Dictionary notes that the term ‘individual’ is derived from Latin as indīviduāl-is, meaning to be indivisible. The first known definition stems from the idea of forming a separate entity, of being one substance. This definition has expanded to grow and include aspects of self-identity, being distinguished by others and, specifically, pertaining to a single person. Although an older reference, in the article "A New Definition for Individual", it is interesting that it distinguishes the term into two parts: ‘indivi’, meaning inseparable, and ‘dual’, meaning divided into two, or duality (Gregorc & Ward, 1977). Even though being somewhat of an oxymoron, this 'double definition' can provide a more accurate idea of the role of an individual in today’s highly accessible, technological society. Yochai Benkler’s The Wealth of Networks (2006) focuses on the term ‘individual’ with phrases such as ‘individual freedom’ or the ‘autonomous individual’ to demonstrate the individual’s significant affect on characterizing what he defines to be the networked information economy (NIE), wherein due to media access, the power shifts to the individual (Benkler, 2006). It is with this freedom and power that an individual is able to be separate (indivi) and exercise their own rights, but also collaborate with others (dual) and help to create a network. Although Benkler focuses on the ‘individual’s actions’, he also uses phrases such as ‘the individual alone and by cooperative efforts’. Benkler (2006) also states that as individuals are “enabled by technological change we are beginning to see a series of … radical transformation[s] of how we make the information environment we occupy as autonomous individuals, citizens, and members of cultural and social groups” (p. 2). The term moves from a singular identity to a plural, or, in this case, group. As such, in a network environment, the individual’s role is twofold: acting as a single entity, but also within a group. It is, then, ‘the singular’ as well as the group that comes together, becoming a part of the commons, part of the public domain, part of the NIE. Therefore, when participating in whatever kind of network, what stands out is that an individual is not necessarily a truly separate entity, but is always part of some kind of a whole. (Claire Ahn)
Industrial
Industrial is derived from the Latin word industria and, as documented in the 19th century, is an adaptation of the modern French word industriel. Industrial, as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary (2nd Ed. 1989), relates to productive labour. It was first used in the sixteenth century to identify production created by humans as different from naturally occurring production: "Of fruits, some bee Industriall, and some Naturall. By Industriall, I meane suche as bee sowne in the ground by mans industry, in hope..to be reaped with increase ere long" (Swinburne, Henry:A briefe treatise of testaments and last willes;1590). Thus, the creation of the internet can be seen as industrial as it is a product of labour sown by humans. In Benkler's 2006 book Wealth of Networks , he identifies how the shape of information technology is transforming from the industrial to a more "...individual and cooperative nonmarket production of information and culture.... The beginnings of the internet market were characterized as an industrial information economy built on mass production of information by large companies and governments. This kind of information was regulated by organized private and/or public industries. Karl Marx, however, was noted as one of the earliest users of the word industrial in referring to the industrial revolution (Bezanson, 1922). According to Marx, the industrial process of the working force created great inequalities in the distribution of wealth in society and, as result, produced a working class that eventually will revolt against the wealthy minority. (Janice Jasbinder Matharu)
Infobesity
Created as a hybridization of the words “information” and “obesity,” the term was first used by James Morris in 2003[1], who used a food model to describe the ways that information is produced and consumed. He suggests that in the same way that reliable food production brought about the problem of obesity, the abundance and ready availability of information has given us the new disease of infobesity. Carrying this metaphor further, Morris and others suggest an ‘infodiet.’ In “The Infodiet: How Libraries Can Offer an Appetizing Alternative to Google,” (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2004) Stephen Bell describes infobesity as the “outcome Google-izing research” full of masses of low quality, but nutritionally deficient material. Thus, for Bell, infobesity is closely tied to the ease and immediacy of the Google search model. To combat a continued over-consumption of junk information, Bell turns to the library and its databases as the nutritionally rich diet alternative. Bell calls for the specialized databases found in research libraries to ‘google-ize’ their search catalogues, mimicking popular search engines. In this way, the healthy information will take on the appetizing characteristics of junk researching methods. Psychologists[2] have looked at the effect infobesity on the brain. Using Morris’ food model, they suggest our brains are designed to look for information since there was once a scarcity. Further, the same pleasure centre in the brain is registered as we consume information, thereby rewarding the user. There is a danger, according to this model, of people becoming addicted to the feeling associated with acquiring information. With the advent of social networking sites, for example, provide ‘snack’ for the treat-hungry user. (MacDougall)
Information Literacy
This term, although not found in the OED, is widely used by educators and others engaged in discussions surrounding technology and 21st Century Learning. Examining the phrase through separation of its' two words, information is derived from the Latin word enformacion and was first cited in the late 14th century. Information, in the context of education, means the teaching, instruction and communication of knowledge. Subsequently the word literacy, coined in the USA in the 19th century was derived from the English word literate; the ability to read and write. Used as a two word phrase and in the realm of technology, Voogt and Pareja Robin (2012) state "Information literacy refers to the capacity to access information efficiently and effectively, to evaluate information critically and competently, and to use the information accurately and creatively". They further argue that information literacy must be interwoven within and across curriculum and the 21st century competencies. An expanded definition is offered by McTavish (2009) in her case study "I get my facts from the Internet," where she defines information literacy as "the ability to locate, 'read', and manage information within a range or printed, electronic, visual texts, and ICT networks; and to critically evaluate information; and to communicate information clearly via spoken and written language while mediating social networks and relationships." As we continue to move forward in a knowledge based economy, Canadian policy makers recognize the need teach information literacy skills in schools. Therefore embedded throughout the C21-Canadians for 21st Century Learning and Innovation Summit (2012), Shifting Minds, are "21st Century Competencies" that reflect the knowledge and skills defined as information literacy. These competencies include: Creativity, Innovation and Entrepreneurship; Critical Thinking; Collaboration; Communication; Character; Culture and Ethical Citizenship; and Computer and Digital Technologies. (Jennifer Barker)
Integration
Integration derived from the Latin integrātiōn-em in the sense of 'renewal, restoration to wholeness', holds many meanings around the idea of combining parts to make whole (OED). The first usage was from Thomas Granger (1620), "The Interall in Logike.. respecteth.. integration whereby the totall is made a totall of all his members together.” Later used in psychology, math, and more recently business and technology. Integration is a key concept in an article by Joke Voogt and Natalie Pareja Roblin on 21st Century Competences, “This study aims to synthesize literature about various policy frameworks that were developed to support the curricular integration of 21st Century Competences.” This ‘curricular integration’ involves the bringing together the various ‘competences’ needed by the 21st Century learner. This integration is necessary as we move from a content, subject specific curriculum to a skills based, multidimensional curriculum. This idea has a long history in education. Franzie L. Loepp (1999), in Models of Curriculum Integration, states, “Educational researchers have found that an integrated curriculum can result in greater intellectual curiosity, improved attitude towards schooling, enhanced problem-solving skills, and higher achievement in college.” Putting the theory of integrated curriculum in practice has been challenging. The teacher needs to approach curriculum as a ‘marble cake’, which is more based on problem solving. Integration of technology into curriculum has been discussed in Rachel Vannatta’s (2000) Evaluation to Planning: Technology Integration in a School education, “ In 1994, NCATE and ISTE set forth accreditation guidelines that focused more on the integration of technology in professional teacher preparation programs.” Bringing technology together with curriculum is necessary to make technology relevant in the curriculum. Integration is a much-used idea in education today. The bringing together of disparate parts of learning into meaningful wholes creates authentic learning and makes meaning for the student. (Andrew Taylor)
Intellectual Property
Intellectual Property (IP) is used in many disciplines including legal, political, commercial: specifically music, the performing arts, motion pictures, and other media, as well as academia to name a few. As intellectual property is intangible in nature, it is subsequently difficult to place a value on it. The need to place a value on intellectual property is mentioned in an early text from 1845 which states, “Only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labours of the mind, productions and interests as much a man’s own…as the wheat he cultivates” (Woodbury & Minot Rep. Cases Circuit Court of U.S. (1847) i. 57 ). This suggests that what a person produces is, in fact, his or her own intellectual property that they have a right to. This is echoed in a 1968 usage which says ‘Intellectual property’ shall include the rights relating to:—literary, artistic and scientific works,..—industrial designs,—trademarks, [etc.]. (Convention World Intellectual Property Organiz. Art. 2 (viii) 3 in Parl. Papers 1970–71 (1970) IX. 649). In “Valuation of Intellectual Property” “[3]” (2009), Smith describes intellectual property as an “artistic and technical subject matter that is subject to government-granted or contractual legal protections (such as copyright, patent, or trade secret protection).” This seems to indicate that it is critical that the rights of the creator are protected and regulated. An issue that arisea from this is described in Yochai Benkler’s Wealth of Networks (2006). “The lack of either analytic or empirical foundation for the regulatory drive toward ever-stronger proprietary rights has not, however, resulted in a transformed politics of the regulation of intellectual production.” This indicates there is an awareness of the need to protect people’s property rights, but does this protection come at the expense of individual learning, creativity, and the public good? According to a Willinsky lecture (2012), there is “incentive for its [intellectual property’s] creation because it contributes to humankind.” This shows that people are more inclined to contribute to the production of intellectual property if everyone (the public) can have access to it and it is used for the common good. (Katharine Cadman)
Intensification
Used to describe the action of intensifying, or making more intense, such as by heightening, deepening, augmenting, strengthening. (Oxford English Dictionary) As applied to technology, intensification is used in several ways. In as study on the use of ICT during travel time, Mobile ICTs as tools of intensification of travel time use? Results of qualitative study based on French workers, Chevallier uses the term to describe the idea that the time spent travelling is made more intense, or is more intensely used for tasks, because of the prevalence of ICT. "Technological mobile devices such as handphones, smartphones, PDAs, laptops, Wifi and many others allow individuals to do many tasks everywhere. These evolutions traditionally comfort the hypothesis of intensification of travel time." In looking at a similar issue in the article Virtually there: travelling with new media, White and White state, "'Space–time’ compression" refers to the increased speed and volume of material made possible by new communications technologies, and the resulting intensification of ‘discrete’ events in real time." In his lecture The First Task of Thought in Our Time prepared for presentation on July 13, 2012 at the UBC/SFU Institute "Recurring Questions of Technology: A Brief History of Consciousness and Learning", William Pinar, in his interpretation of the ideas of George Grant, proposed, "At the same time, in its tendency toward intensification, technology also undermines freedom and efficiency, submerging us in minutiae, tying us to the present moment, an interminable present in which we become preoccupied with the next sensation, a next 'hit' of communication or information, focused on the expectation that in the next moment 'something' will happen, something will stimulate." (Pauline Veto)
Interactive
A ubiquitous term as applied to ICT that is used to describe the two way flow of information between the device (or software, application or website) and the user, usually with immediate response from the device. (Oxford English Dictionary) It is used in the name of academic journals, such as: Journal of Interactive Technology & Pedagogy, which states as its mission, "is to promote open scholarly discourse around critical and creative uses of digital technology in teaching, learning, and research." Interactive has been used in pedagogy to describe activities or techniques which involve reciprocity between students, between teacher and student, and between ICT and students. Dobson, Michura, Ruecker, Brown & Rodriguez (2011) in their paper Interactive visualization of plot in fiction, state "The alternative interactive forms that we propose allow a more dynamic approach that can be customized by the teachers and students to accommodate various interpretations of a single piece of fiction." In this sense, interactive is used to describe reciprocity using ICT in order to explore literature in visual forms. The term is also used in conference titles in association with new technology such as the annual SXSW Interactive in Austin, TX. "From hands-on training to big-picture analysis of the future, SXSW Interactive has become the place to experience a preview of what is unfolding in the world of technology." The term used here has both meanings - an interactive conference based on presentations which encourage person to person and group interaction, and to refer to the way the technology itself is used. (Pauline Veto)
Interdisciplinary
Developing projects that are more interdisciplinary in nature has become a goal for many of today’s teachers. The word interdisciplinary is an adjective that is a composed of the prefix inter which essentially means a combination between one or more things (OED) and the word discipline. When one mentions the disciplines studied at school, separate subjects such as reading, writing, math and science come to mind. Therefore the word interdisciplinary means a mix or combination of the subjects studied. When thinking about the competences and skills needed to be successful with 21st century learning, Voogt and Roblin (2012) suggested that “the connection between core subjects and 21st century competences should be clearly identified. The introduction of interdisciplinary themes, to be addressed within and across subjects, could contribute to make these connections stronger” (p. 317). They truly believe an education that is interdisciplinary in nature is beneficial to today’s students. Similar to Voogt and Roblin ideas, BC’s Education Plan suggest that school can become even more interdisciplinary by developing strategies that “connect students more directly with the outside world of school, with increased focus on learning these skills across topic areas” (p.4). Education that is interdisciplinary enables students to personalize their education and tailor it more specifically to their individual learning needs, styles, and interests. Malone and Crowston (1994) wrote “The Interdisciplinary Study of Coordination” to show how their study “uses and extends ideas about coordination from disciplines such as computer science, organization theory, operations research, economics, linguistics and psychology” (p. 87). Interdisciplinary learning and education enables students to think deeper about the concepts they are learning, using and practicing and helps them to make stronger connections to the content that is being covered in class. Interdisciplinary education is essential to helping children develop the skills and competences needed to be successful in 21st century learning. (Katie Carr)
J
Judging
To make a judgement or sentence upon something or someone; to judge, which started to feature in the language since the 1400s as ME iugge, ME–15 iuge having been inherited from Old French Old French jugier and was originally from Latin: jūdicāre, < jūdex, jūdicem. It has for the most part retained its original meaning from that time for example: c1400 Rom. Rose 6311 "God iugged me for a theef trichour." Stuart Poyntz asserts that judging is an act one does in order for the solitary to connect with the rest of society as opposed to the singular act of thinking which does not require an audience or other for feedback or response. This is something media literacy facilitates to today's youth who live in a world of mass media and in which there can be an assumed expectation to simply consume without questioning or responding. Judging, Poyntz asserts, also requires risk-taking to present one's view but that this activity 'enlarges' one's outlook as a result of being exposed to other viewpoints on common points of interest. Bruno Latour refers to this concept when he talks about assembling in a neutral place not because we agree with our colleagues, neighbours etc. but precisely because we disagree on our common points of interest or "thing" (From Realpolitik to Dingpolitik or How to Make Things Public, Bruno Latour). Media education facilitates the ability to judge by giving opportunities to practice and get feedback within authentic settings and audiences. He also asserts that young people do not take this role on automatically but need to be encouraged and challenged into it. This would make sense given that today's youth live in a world where they are being continually judged but have no positively recognized ventue to respond to such judgements by society and mass media. http://wiki.ubc.ca/images/1/12/Day2_presentation.pdf Critical Citizenship. (Yvette Cassidy)