Course:Recurring Questions of Technology/Keywords/M N

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

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Machine

Although today’s definition of Machine describes the machine as a structure that can function independently it is often used to also describe non-concrete systems. First used in Modern English in 1545 to describe the world as the machine (“The hole machyne of this world is divided in .2. parte. That is to saye, in the celestiall and into the elementall regions. Machine, hath many significacions, but here it is taken for the worke of the hole worlde.” J. Schäfer). The idea of the machine as a system of the world or society continues with Grant’s use of the machine to describe our society, (“our society is above all a machine for greed,” Pinar, Modernity, Technology, Nationality 6). In the 50’s the machine was promoted as a way to enable freedom. It was to assist with the housekeeping. A woman could now have leisurely time because she had machines such as the washing machine to help her with her work (UBC lecture William Pinar July 13, 2012). Machine often frames our relationship with technology and forces us to observe that relationship. In William Pinar’s paper Modernity, Technology, Nationality, human will’s relationship with technology is described by Ernst Jünger as, “man-machine symbiosis”. The use of the word machine seems to float between the concrete and the abstract just as our observations of the machine is inevitably intertwined with our relationship of our using of the machines. Aoiki also implies that although technology is constantly inviting us in we should decline that invitation because if the machine is not helpful it is indeed harmful and we are not capable of revealing it’s true potential (Pinar, Modernity, Technology, Nationality 29). (Adrienne Longworth)

Marketing

The root word “market,” which was derived in the early 12th Century is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as a place at which trade is conducted. Correspondingly, marketing, which was derived from Old North French in the 1500s is the action of buying or selling, especially in a market (OED). The earliest usage of this word, according to the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1561 by Thomas Norton in “Calvin’s Institution of Christian religion”, “How filthy markettinges they vse, how vnhonest haines they make wt their massinges.” It is interesting to note how marketing has transformed throughout history from a primarily production oriented system in the earliest of times to the current practices of brand messaging and ‘co-creation’. In the article by Stuart R. Poyntz and Michael Hoechsmann (2011), “Children’s Media Culture in a Digital Age”, many brand marketing strategies, with the ultimate purpose of “shaping youthful identities and social futures” are discussed. Some of these strategies include viral marketing, developing environments for children to interact with branded products, and ‘immersive advertising’. Likewise, the video, “Consuming Kids: The Commercialization of Marketing”, depicts the relentless, and arguably inappropriate, use of marketing strategies targeting our youth today. Video taping young children bathing, promoting advertising in public schools, and monitoring online usage contribute to or are examples of marketing strategies in the 21st Century. Detlev Zwick, Samuel K. Bonsu and Aron Darmody add to this notion of marketing in their article, “Putting Consumers to Work: Co-creation’ and new marketing govern-mentality.”, which compares old marketing and new marketing practices. In essence, they argue that there is a shift in marketing strategies from the more traditional sense where consumers are controlled, to a system where the consumer is in charge. (Robert Young)

Marshall McLuhan

A Canadian academic (1911-1980), whose writings on media and communications are regarded both as highly influential and remarkably prescient in regards to the technological revolutions that have followed. While many view McLuhan as a pioneering proponent of technology, he actually loathed the new world he described, and was carefully neutral in his pronouncements. Written as part of the Extrodinary Canadians series, Douglas Coupland’s Marshall McLuhan: You Know Nothing of My Work describes both McLuhan’s life and ideas, suggesting that far from being the ‘rock star’ icon many see him as today, he was instead simply someone able to read trends and patterns and play to the media spotlight. Possibly his most famous, and misunderstood phrase, ‘the medium is the message’ originates in McLuhans 1964 work Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. It was not what was being said that was of import, he argued, but rather the medium chosen to convey the content that should be examined. The characteristics of the chosen medium influenced both the content and the society around it. The tendency to focus on the message means that most people miss the influence of the medium, neglecting to understand how various media (often today perceived as various technologies) are shaping our society. Richard Cavell (2002) suggests that McLuhan perceived nature and society as becoming simply artefacts of their technologies, a deterministic view echoed by Grant’s commentaries on a modern technological dystopia. One of McLuhan’s less well known contributions is his ‘tetrad of media effects’, four questions to be considered in relation to any media: What does it enhance? What does it obsolesce? What is recalled that had been rendered obsolete? What happens if the medium is taken to extremes? While these questions help us understand the effects of a medium, they are also highly accurate in suggesting the effects new media and technologies will have on society. (Ashley Shaw)

Mastery

Mastery appears in Old English in the early 13th century as mesterie condition of being a master, superiority or victory. In 1660 in Old French its form was maistre meaning intellectual command. According to William F. Pinar in The First Task of Thought in Our Time (n.d.), George Grant, Canadian philosopher, historian, and theologian, wrestled with his experiences and perceptions of World War 1 and 2, the human condition and the degenerate effects of human will. Grant defines “Mastery” as an implementation of “Free Will” (Carlos D. Colorado, George Grant and Augustine of Hippo on human will and technological mastery, 2007, p. 99). Grant sees the human free will as suffering from degeneracy. Once this will is coupled with technology, the will becomes “mastery”. This mastery may be a domination, an inflicting of one’s will of ourselves (humans) or nature. Technology is defined as a means and supply. In Grant’s view Abraham, who was promised by God, to be the father of a nation, yet whose wife, Sarah, was barren, used technology, a means and supply, in his maid Hagar, to procreate and supply himself with a child. Technology is what humans use to turn their will into mastery. Grant also learned from his experience as a Canadian about the use of technology to master the environment. This environment, unlike much of Europe, is more difficult, more extreme and needs more courage and more technology to be mastered (Pinar, n.d.). In Time as History (1969) Grant refers to “self-mastery”. However, this master is not the mastery of the individual self but the mastery of nature and of other people. Arts, sciences, technology are aimed at the control of others, mastering people for the sake of the collective demand of a society. Through ‘mastery’ of nature the rise of capitalism and science occur and what is lost is spiritual, moral and intellectual development. Grant stands in comparison and contrast to Augustine. Both viewed mastery as the implementation of will. Whereas Grant’s main work focused on the degenerate aspect of will, Augustine chose a more positive outlook. In Augustine’s view one’s need for mastery may be diminished by ordering one’s loves and submitting one’s will to God (Colorado, 2007). (Jen Erickson)

Media

The use of the word media was first used in 1923 as the plural form of medium and then started to spread as a singular noun in 1966 (OED). Media represents “the main means of mass communication, esp. newspapers, radio, television regarded collectively… as a count noun of mass communication” (OED). The term media is often seen paired as a compound: media education, media literacy, digital media, media relations, media event etc., and has layered itself into the English language as an expression for communication, and understanding and engagement in public life. Moreover, there has been an ever growing interest and popularity surrounding media; according to Stuart Poyntz (2012) “Media time increased significantly- across classes, genders, and ethnicities, TV viewing is declining from 25-28 hrs/week in Britain, the US and Canada in the 1980s to more than 50 hrs per week with all digital media.” It was stated in Stuart Poyntz presentation, Technology as Youth Culture- Rhetorics of Communication and Participation, that politic changes in 1979 influenced this change by making the transition to a more unregulated media system. Today, media has blown the communication boundaries, and subsequently, media will continue to grow and develop to unknown boundaries. Therefore youth, according to Stuart R. Poyntz and Michael Hoechsmann’s (2011) Children's Media Culture in a Digital Age, “ are growing up in an increasingly complex communication environment”. With media development and availability growing and changing, there will be new educational opportunities, new careers, and new movements in society that are unpredictable. Moreover, as suggested by Darin Barney, Excuse us if we don't give a fuck (2010) “media provides an ever blossoming range of opportunities to vote, rank, comment, mash up, contribute, produce, present, mark up, post, tag, choose, share, customize, network link, navigate, discuss, play, provide feedback and collaborate”. (Sydney Mitchell)

Metadata

Metadata is data about data. The data collected is intended to give information on the data. The first use of data is documented in 1969, “There are categories of information about each data set as a unit in a data set of data sets, which must be handled as a special meta data set, (Proc. IFIP Congr. 1968 I. 113/2 ). “In a modular metadata world, data elements from different schemas as well as vocabularies and other building blocks can be combined in a syntactically and semantically interoperable way.” Duval et. al go on to discuss the Lego™ model of metadata where the reusability needs to be considered in order for future designers to be able to benefit. The Lego™ blocks need to be able to interlock with each other in a way that will continue to work throughout time, (E Duval, W Hodgins, S Sutton… - D-lib Magazine, 2002 - dlib.org). Moving away from the Lego™ model of metadata we encounter a new set of metadata emerging when looking at text from Moretti’s perspective. Books, such as Shakespeare are now considered data and the data collected is now the metadata (UBC lecture July 2012 with Teresa Dobson). New software applications are enabling a whole new perspective on books as the text starts to take on new meaning while being used as input for images. (Adrienne Longworth)

Millennials

The root word millennial, derived from the post-classical Latin word millennium has multiple meanings. Used within technological contexts, millennium refers to the late 20th century and first years of the 21st century. In Howe and Strauss (2000) popular book Millennials Rising: The Next Generation they use the term millennials to refer to anyone born in or after 1982. They see this generation as distinct from any other; more numerous, affluent, better educated, more ethnically diverse and; the world's first generation to grow up thinking of itself as global. Connected to technology, "'Millennials' are typically defined as the first generation of folks whose teen years were spent in an era of ubiquitous access to networked digital media via the Internet, in general, and the Web, in particular" (Bryson and MacIntosh, 2010). Prensky (2001) described this generation of students as "digital natives" who have grown up in a world infused with digital technologies such as DVDs, Internet, email, cell phones, etc. A challenge in education is how best to educate these students who have vastly different "expectations, preferences, and experiences" (Marks, 2005). Marks (2005) comments that "The first generation of millennials experienced a disconnect between school and their lived lives". This has been recognized across educational spheres, and as we move forward in the 21st Century, government policy makers have begun to suggest transformations through documents such as the BC Education Plan to meet the unique needs of the millennials. (Jennifer Barker)

Mobility

Mobility originates from the French mobilité in the 17th century, meaning "the character of that which is mobile" (OED). It was in the 19th century when mobility focused primarily on one's ability to move within social and economic strata. The focus on mobilities or ‘cultural flows’ was brought forward by Arjun Appadurai (1996) who suggested that mobile movement of information and culture across ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, financescapes and ideascapes was a characteristic of globalization. In Sociology beyond society: Mobilities for the twenty-first century, John Urry (2010) suggests that contemporary theory should concern itself with “diverse mobilities of peoples, objects, images, information and wastes; and of the complex interdependencies between, and social consequences of, these diverse mobilities” (p. 1). In Can we play fun gay: Disjuncture and difference, and the precarious mobilities of millennial queer youth narratives, Bryson and MacIntosh (2010) refer to mobilities as precarious, meaning unstable, or shaky. They refer to mobilities as shifts that are not universal, deproblematized or fluid. They claim that the internet does not provide an automatic solution to social justice, instead it is precarious in opening up social justice possibilities. Bryson and MacIntosh rely on Foucault’s mobilities of care of the self, meaning that caring for oneself requires effort to redefine oneself within new theoretical and social possibilities. In an interview in Berkely in 1983, Foucault claims that care of the self means “changing one’s attitude towards oneself. … The idea of movement in ones existence by which one turns back on oneself as an ultimate target.” Mobilities are a key component of conceptual deterritorialization (Deleuze and Guattari, 1972) in which the focus is on uprooting philosophical concepts and trying them out in in other contexts. It is also a key feature of liquid modernity (Bauman, 2010) in which nomadism characterizes the ambivalent condition of modernity where people are territorial, political, sexual, economic and cultural migrants. Mobilities are enabled through media as prosthetics devices, meaning that media and humans intricately extend their capacity to move themselves through time and space, arguments developed by scholars such as Harold Innis, Marshal McLuhan, Bernard Stiegler, Bruno Latour and Donna Haraway. (Marcelina Piotrowski)

Mobilize

From the French, mobiliser, most uses of mobilize came into English parlance in the late 19th century (Online Etymology Dictionary). In the sense of "to press into support", mobilize gained currency to describe how non-human things, such as arguments, facts, or public will, can be utilized to achieve an objective (OED). For example, in discussing the lead-up to the Iraq War, many discuss the use of public relations and propaganda to "mobilize" public will or anger in order to gain the support for a declaration of war (MICASE Corpus of Academic Spoken English). Similarly, Mary Bryson uses mobilization to discuss the "mobilization of attention" performed by networked media and online resources, such as Twitter. Mobilize is now used in similar terms to its older counterpart, when applied to the mobilization of armies or soldiers for war; similarly, the word now implies the calling forth of resources to compete in the public sphere of opinion. (Robin Ryan)

Mobile Learning

Mobile learning, characterized by the french mobile; that which provides an impulsion or movement (OED), refers to learning through media which is portable across space and hence reduces the duration of time in which information is accessed. The history of mobile learning is marked by historical events like the invention of the clay tablet and the Gutenberg press that allowed orders and scriptures to become mobile, and more easily accessed and interpreted by its audience. In The Bias of Communication (1951) Harold Innis argued that the transition from oral to written cultures enabled information to be spread through the portability of clay tablets or parchment, often with the ability to expand empire, but was also the cause by which illiterate people were able to self-educate and interpret their rights, leading to the decentralization of power. In contemporary terms, the affordance of mobile technology in is in the ability to “use of wireless mobile technology allows anyone to access information and learning materials from anywhere and at anytime” (Ally, 2009). Mobile learning includes the use of mobile phones, laptops and tablets, and is often driven by consumers who extend the use of personalized media and technology into public realm such as education (Peters, 2007). The Framework for the Rational Analysis of Mobile Education (FRAME) suggests that educators implementing mobile learning should consider device, social and learner aspects, requiring consideration into social collaborative learning theory, device provision and support and individual learning needs. Some educational institutions provide learners with device while others encourage learners and staff to bring-your-own-device (BYOD), supporting a diversity of mobile device preferences that learners can personalize. In the Transformation Technology Update (2012/2013), the Province of British Columbia has stated that “improved access to multi-media, mobile-enabled learning resources will help enable flexible, personalized learning” (p. 30). Mobile learning requires that learners and educators are equipped to participate, evoking questions of equity and financial responsibility, particularly with regards to cost of implementing the infrastructure for wireless in learning spaces. (Marcelina Piotrowski)

Modernity

Derived from fifth century post-classical Latin (modernus, modernitat-, modernitas: of the present time) designating a person currently holding office, also as a sixth century noun denoting people or things, and coming to mean being in existence at this time; current, present or relating to the present and recent times, as opposed to the remote past and originating in the current age or period; subsequently distinguished as an intellectual tendency or social perspective characterized by departure from or repudiation of traditional ideas, doctrines, and cultural values in favour of contemporary or radical values and beliefs (chiefly those of scientific rationalism and liberalism). It was first used in this latter context in the mid-seventeenth century ("Yea but I vilifie the present times, you say, whiles I expect a more flourishing state to succeed; bee it so, yet this is not to vilifie modernitie, as you pretend," George Hakewill, 1635). George Grant in Time as History (2001 [1969]) speaks about living in a state of crisis regarding the “spearhead” of modernity. By “spearhead” he is referring to the ever increasing production, integration and implementation of technology and its associated pursuits, activities, attributes and disciplines. This crisis is about what and where we currently are - good or bad, crisis no crisis - and what we are becoming. Man in his suffering of history and his freedom of ability to make history are facets of modernity which Grant encourages contemplation of. In doing so, these facets become the nexus of the tension between contemporary common notions of progress within history and Plato's classical concept of history as a moving image of eternity: more or less responsible viewpoints with contrasting implications of modernity. However as William Pinar in his essay "Modernity, Technology, Nationality" (2012) pointed out Grant stressed that a "universal and egalitarian society is the goal of historical striving" in the context of technological progress within modernity despite its "violent multiplicity." If, as Pinar states, "economic expansion that enforce cultural homogeneity" is demanded by modernity, does modernity have to mean the universal state as an absolute?. (Jim Shaw)

Motivation

Derived from the verb “motive” with the added suffix of “ation” and used by academics across scholarly disciplines such as psychology and sociology to describe the stimulus for action towards a desired goal. Probably from the German “Motivierung” and first used in the English language in the late Nineteenth Century (“Even psychological determinism is displaced by rigid mechanical necessity, and objective motivation is always real physical impulsation,” Princeton Review 1,61 1879). In the Wealth of Networks (2006), Yochai Benkler describes humans as being diversely motivated. “We act for material gain, but also for psychological well-being and gratification, and for social connectedness.” With specific regards to creativity relating to intellectual property, Benkler argues that in the networked information economy this social connectedness and the results of nonmarket collaborations are better motivators of creativity and action than are the market forces and the material gain. Within the domain of psychology, as in “Culture and Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation” “[1]” (1991) Markus & Kitayama describe achievement motive as a “fundamental human characteristic”, and the source of a person’s desire to act towards an outcome. This links to Benkler’s notion of motivation in that working towards a desired outcome could be a creative idea shared freely for public consumption thus resulting in attribution, peer-review or feedback, and ultimately validation for the work done. In “Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being” “[2]” (2000), Ryan & Deci argue there are “three innate psychological needs – competence, autonomy, and relatedness – which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being.” This ties to Benkler’s idea in that motivation to do work or exert effort towards a desired outcome is an inherent capacity within humans stemming from a need to connect to other humans. Whether this is in the form of working collaboratively and creatively to achieve a goal, or to work independently to create and share with others as a means of validation. (David Cadman)

Multiliteracies

The term multiliteracies was created by the New London Group (NLG) in 1994 to propose appropriate education for people to response to radical change in work, civic and personal worlds. There are two major topics that the NLG meant to address: The first applies the concept of literacy to various forms of languages. Traditionally, basic literacy means the ability to read and write Standard English. “What is appropriate education for women, for indigenous peoples, for immigrants who do not speak the national language, for speakers of non-standard dialects? What is appropriate for all in the context of the ever more critical factors of local diversity and global connectedness?” (New London Group, 1996. A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review.) Considerations of globalization lead us toward the importance of understanding the perspective of others, developing a historical grounding, and seeing the interconnectedness of economic and ecological systems (Bertram C. Bruce, 2002). The second way to incorporate the term multiliteracies is to respond how technology and multimedia is changing the way we communicate. These days, text is not the only and main way to communicate, instead, multiple modes of expression are used including sounds, images, movies, internet, and television. Adolescents need to learn how to integrate knowledge from multiple sources, such as music, video, online databases, and other media (Jenkins et al., 2009, Confronting the challenges of participatory culture) and acquire multiple essential literacies, which include information literacy, digital literacy, numerical literacy, media literacy and visual literacies. As educators, we should prepare for the changed dimensions of school literacies and expand our view of education, implement multiliteracies pedagogy in curriculum and increase diversity in the classroom. (Jennifer Jing Zhao)

Multitasking

"Multi" is derived from Latin (multus: much, many); "task" is derived from 13th century Old French (originally tasche, then evolving to tâche: duty, tax). The use of this keyword began in the computer engineering industry, originally referring to a computer microprocessor’s ability to process several tasks at the same time. The first recorded use of the term “multitask” was in a 1965 paper about the functionalities of the IBM System/360. “Human multitasking” arose from computer multitasking, which described the “...best performance by an individual of appearing to handle more than one task at the same time...”. Due to the proliferation of technologies, media multitasking is widely recognized today. This involves the use of TV, Internet, radio, phone, print, or any other media simultaneously with another. In Children’s Media Culture in a Digital Age, Stuart R. Poyntz and Michael Hoechsmann (2011, p. 492) state that youth today are more likely to be “...media multitaskers, capable of packing more media into any given hour of consumption...” Poyntz and Hoechsmann (2011) also mention that youth in the U.S. are able to cram 11 hours’ worth of media content into a 7 hour duration each day. In Children and the Internet: Great Expectations, Challenging Realities, Sonia Livingstone (2009, p. 21) points out that through multitasking, a new world of sociality is opened up for youth in a “bedroom culture”; that is, a new array of resources and relationships emerge in a space that is typically perceived as ‘private’. Researchers have also investigated how media multitasking impacts learning, and the findings have been generally negative. In their study of cognitive load in multimedia learning, Mayer and Moreno “[3]”(2003) found that participants could not multitask and learn new information at the same time. Junco and Cotten "[4]"(2010)discovered that when college students engaged in multitasking, especially instant messaging, they experienced a detrimental effect on their schoolwork. (Alexis Mauricio)

Multitude

While multitude is derived from Anglo-Norman and Middle French, the root is multitudine which is of Latin origin. Multitude is a noun which refers to a large quantity, is can also be used (with ‘the’) as a derogatory term to describe the masses or common people. One of the earliest uses of the term in a political context was by Niccolo Machiavelli (Discorsi, 1517 ), where he describes the uselessness of a multitude without a head. Benedictus Spinoza (Tractatus Politicas, 1677) describes ‘the multitude’ as being separate from ‘the people’ in that the former acts in unity without dissolving into a singularity whereas the latter has a singular will ( Virno, 2004 ).This term has more recently been used by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri in the title of their book Multitude: War and Democracy in the age of Empire, (2005) which is the sequel to their book Empire (2000). They use the term to describe large populations of people but, unlike the term ‘masses’, the differences between the individuals in these populations are honoured. Where the masses are treated as being homogeneous in composition (though, in reality, they aren’t), the multitude is more of a heterogeneous entity. The authors go on to explain that the multitude can be compared to the internet, where a network connects nodes but yet the nodes persist as individual, unique units. As Nick Dyer-Witherford and Greig De Peuter explain in Games in the age of empire (2009), the multitude is a revolutionary force which seeks the democratic distribution of resources. In light of this definition, one group has taken on the title of ‘the multitude’ with respect to the global Occupy movement (The Multitude). (John Cunnian)

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Narcissism

Deriving its meaning from Greek Mythology whereby the young man Narcissus, having fallen in love with his image reflected in a pond, falls in and drowns, the term narcissism, alludes to the condition characterized by an excessive self-love and vanity. While there are many avenues through which narcissism has been studied, cultural narcissism is perhaps the best way of describing the relationship between technology and this condition. Published in 1979, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations [5] Christopher Lasch describes a condition of the post-war American who, through a very weak sense of self, craves constant external validation. Taking Lasch’s definition, critics and researchers have used cultural narcissism to describe the current condition revealed by social networks. As David DaSalvo confirms in Are Social Media Messing With Your Head narcissists “revel in collecting social contacts—the more the better, no matter how superficial the underlying relationships” (Scientific American January/February 2010) . DaSalvo further suggests that online narcissists are characterized by their need to be the “star attraction.” Interestingly, one study reports that viewers are easily able to spot through readings of their posts. In their study of the photographs posted to the social networking site Facebook, Temple and Papacharissi refer to sort of "collectively performed narcissism" to describe the ways that a single image is tagged, commented on and how that process is repeated [6]. From an educational point of view, say Ryan, Bednar and Sweener[7], schooling promotes and even rewards the narcissist. For them, the “excessive preoccupation with oneself” that characterizes the narcissist is often conflated with self-esteem. In their opinion the strength of cultural narcissism is such that even institutions like schools are perpetuating narcissistic tendencies. Thus, the student who does not exhibit the behaviour produced by the shared cultural narcissism, is pushed to the margins. They posit that technology, including social media creates a space for the introverted student to thrive. (Lisa MacDougall)

Narratology

Separating the word into two parts, ‘narrate’ originates from the Latin narrāt, meaning to ‘relate’ or ‘recount’. Today, this word is used in a variety of methods such as in law or broadcasting and, in this instance, to tell a story. The suffix ‘-ology’ refers to the study of a science or the ‘discipline of’. Therefore, the term ‘narratology’ can be defined as a literary theory that focuses on the structure and function of a story, including aspects such as linguistics, but also examining literary or figurative aspects. Dobson and colleagues discuss the use of narratology as the framework in developing ‘newer’ plot diagrams for today’s English Language Arts classrooms. The “narratological approach is guided by discovering patterns in and across actual narratives” (p.174) and is a “useful method for producing systematic descriptions and representations of narrative structure” (p.174). Therefore, narratology allows for the development of an interactive visualization of a plot line rather than the traditional Freytag’s Pyramid (Dobson et al, 2011). The idea of narratology is central to the development of a visual plot diagram because what it also helps to accomplish is to develop a 3D, interactive visualization. One way this is accomplished is through what the authors refer to as ‘digital narratology’ where together with aspects of media, it provides an interactive setting with the story (Dobson et al, 2011). What stands out is how narratology can be connected to new media forms in order to create a more engaging experience for the reader (Dobson et al, 2011). This form of interactivity echoes the idea of belonging to a current participatory culture that Stuart Poyntz noted during his discussion; a culture that young students are actively engaged in. Furthermore, students are able to create a 3D plot by using Extensible Markup Language (XML) that students can use in a variety of digital tools such as ProVis and Mandala. What is interesting to note is that the use of narratology is connected to the 21st century mode of learning, which then can be used to develop a ‘sustainable curriculum’ (Voogt & Roblin, 2001) to foster 21st century competencies. (Claire Ahn)

Neoliberalism

The term “neoliberalism” refers to the re-emergence of classical liberalism wherein the values of free market capitalism and individualism are privileged. While it is most often associated with the economic and social policies of newly elected Western political leaders during the late 1970s and early 1980s, such as Britain’s Margaret Thatcher and America’s Ronald Reagan, early uses date back the turn of the century: “The Neo-liberal school, of which M. Pantaleoni is one of the highest authorities, retains the same old attitude towards co-operation. and “Mr. Halm (a member of the neo-liberal school of Professor Adolf Weber, of Munich) sets out to controvert the argument that competition is giving place to socialism.” oed In terms of the use of neoliberalism as it applies to the digitization of education, the main focus has been on protecting the public school system from the market forces which neoliberals are interested in applying to all spheres. In the CBC documentary Consumer Kids, theorists purport that the aim of public education is to promote “reason” as opposed to the aim of advertising which is to subvert reason, concluding therefore that the market has no place in schools. Others, including Stuart Poyntz (2012), believe that digitization might indeed “push back” on the privilege of the private sector in that the 21st century communication technologies allow for a renewed commonplace 2012 slide show. Mary Bryson questions these “assumptions regarding the ameliorative role of access to networked digital media” while refusing to shut the door on possibilities not yet. (Maxx Lapthorne)

New Marketing

Root word: market. Latin merx (merchandise) and mercari (to trade) are traced to the "Italic root" merk (aspects of commerce) (Edenics.net). With relation to manufacturing/advertising, “to market” means “to place or establish a product on the market;, especially to increase sales of a product by means of distribution and promotion strategies. Also, to promote the public image of a person, organization, etc.” (OED). In Putting Consumers to Work: co-creation and new marketing govern-mentality, Zwick, Bonsu, & Darmody (2008) discuss the corporate shift in marketing. A corporate system which once viewed consumers as passive receivers of brand information is now “reconfiguring their own role as one where the company assumes the seemingly humble task of providing technological resources in the hope of fostering the creation of specific and innovative and profitable forms of customer participation” (p.167). This new marketing “requires the fundamental realization that customers are in charge” (p. 164) and relies on resources such as blogs, online games, and product review sites (to name a few). “New marketing” is evident in companies like Webkinz, that require children to purchase a stuffed animal in exchange for a website access code. Once in the website they navigate and decorate the virtual space, while providing the company with information about their interests, age, gender, etc. Lego offers a customer review page, allowing for the manufacturer to tailor their products to increasingly fit the consumer’s needs and wants. New Marketing creates a wrap around branding environment, where consumerism becomes an immersive, interchangeable, and interactive experience. (Katherine Spence)

Network

The origin of network stems from work, which often pertains to manufacturing involving weaving threads or wires to produce material. From this image of work we can see the connection to a similar picture of a network of people or a web of connections. Network is often used to describe the connecting of a number of computers. The sharing and exchanging of information is dependent on these computers (The network is dependent on the network). These are two separate definitions and I will focus on the sharing of information for this entry. One of the earlier examples of the use of network took place 1976 where it is used to describe a family network. Network is a noun referring to entire social or family network as the unit of intervention... (C.L. Attneave in P.J. Guerin Family Therapy xii. 227). The image of the network can also been seen in relation to the patterns envisioned with May Bryson's statement, "Technology and society are interwined and co-constitutive..." lecture on July 12, 2012 UBC. By the early nineties network is being used to refer to the networking of people in reference to making contacts (OED). Welman discusses the distinction between groups of people and networks of people where he describes networked societies where, "boundaries are permeable, interactions are with diverse others, connections switch between multiple networks, and hierarchies can be flatter and recursive." (Welman Physical Place and Cyberspace: The rise of personal networking, 2001). In 2006, in his book The Wealth of Networks, Benkler uses networks to describe the thousands of connected of open-source software developers that work on GNU and Linux, a community as powerful as Microsoft. By 2010 the word network was everywhere, gaining popularity by the movie, The Social Network in which Mark Zuckerberg creates the social networking website that would become known as Facebook. (Adrienne Longworth)

Nietzschean

Nietzschean is a philosophy based on Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philosopher of the 19th Century. His philosophy is based on a skeptical view towards categories and metaphysics and an attack on moral systems (OED). His work is associated with right wing ideologies, particularly the idea of the ‘superman’ (Übermensch in German). The ‘superman’ was the idea that man could transcend Christian morality and impose his own values. George Grant discusses Nietzschean philosophy in his work Time as History (1969), “George Grant was never a Nietzschean, although his praise for Nietzsche’s brilliant analysis of the nature of modernity was at times so fulsome that some readers have been mislead; this was easily done because he had such an exceptional ability to articulate positions other than his own with ease and lucidity” (p.XV). Grant focuses on Nietzsche because of his thinking on time, “he has thought the conception of time as history more comprehensively than any other thinker” (p. 84). Nietzsche believes that language has no direct relationship to reality. There is an ‘abyss’ between humans and reality that language bridges. In Why does Language matter to Education? (2011), Yasuo Imai states, “According to Nietzsche, we should affirm the fact that language is metaphor and truth is illusion” (p.492). Nietzsche argues is nothing more than ‘a uniformly valid and binding designation’ and thus is not related to facts. This is in direct confrontation with theories of natural law. Christian Roos studies a Nietzschean Account of Human Flourishing (2011) by looking at the how the will to power operates in friendship. The notion of happiness for Nietzsche is much different from the traditional notion. His notion of ‘new happiness’, “involves realized selfhood rather than the traditional notion of happiness” (p.20). These three sources examine different Nietzschean views. I think our modern technology has brought us closer to Nietzsche’s idea of the superman. The technology makes us feel in control of our world and all-powerful. His thoughts on the abyss between humans and reality resonate in a world of virtual reality, widening the gap. (Andrew Taylor)

Nonmarket

The word nonmarket does not exist in the Oxford English Dictionary. The closest approximation is non-market, a lack of trade or commercial activity. The root word, market, originates from an uncertain origin but derivatives can be found in most languages: Germanic (markad, merked), Dutch (market, marct, mart) and Old Saxon (markat) are a few examples. However, these derivatives do not refer to the learning economy. Nonmarket is a new formalization by Benkler (2006) in his book Wealth of Networks. His perception is 21st Century digital culture and technology provide intrinsic motivation for individual creation. The power of sharing information is now in the hands of the user, who has a collaborative and active role, rather than the media; and this decentralized nonmarket process is now at the centre rather than the periphery (Benkler, 2006, p3). Nonmarket is tied closely to ideas such as freedom and democracy—in recent generations people have had a voice, but barriers to communication prevented them from using it as effectively as today. Barney (2010), in his article “Excuse us if we don’t give a fuck: The (anti-)political career of participation”, goes so far to say “participation is now compulsory” (142). The public’s opportunity to contribute has expanded exponentially with Internet technology and is crucial to economic and political systems. On the other hand, Barney, D. (2004), in his article “The vanishing table, or community in a world that is no world,” argues “digital technology impoverishes rather than enriches our shared reality” and has more to do with “commodity than community” (p. 50). Digital users are more concerned with the material and are disengaged with the public community and economy. As research into nonmarket systems continues hopefully we will become more enlightened as to the positives and negatives of this once periphery system. Will nonmarket systems become the norm of the system or, as postulated, are they an idealized utopia? (Christie Robertson)

Nonproprietary

Root word: proprietary. “Proprietary” is derived from Medieval Latin (proprietarius: owner, of an owner, of ownership). “Nonpropriety,” thus, encompasses materials and ideas that are “without owner.” In terms of intellectual property in the digital realm, nonproprietary is defined as “conforming to standards that are in the public domain or are widely licensed, and so not restricted to one manufacturer” (OED). In Two Treatises of Government John Locke offers three restrictions on the accumulation or ownership of property: 1) one may only appropriate as much as one can use before it spoils (2.31), 2) one must leave “enough and as good” for others (2.27), and 3) one may only appropriate property through one’s own labour (2.27). In response to Locke’s framework for defining what is proprietary, that which is left over effectively falls into collective ownership (nonproprietary). In Wealth of Networks (2006), Yochai Benkler describes nonproprietary knowledge as related to information production and the enhancement of human development. “ As the networked information economy develops new ways of producing information, whose outputs are not treated as proprietary and exclusive but can be made available freely to everyone (nonproprietary), it offers modest but meaningful opportunities for improving human development everywhere” (Benkler, 2006, p. 10). Information sharing, however, is not impervious to global inequalities. Access to information is limited by infrastructure and economics in developing countries, and the philosophy of a global knowledge base is hindered by these barriers. (Katherine Spence)