Course:Media Analysis of Declining Pacific Salmon Populations in British Columbia

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Media Analysis of Declining Pacific Salmon Populations in British Columbia
JRNL 503: Journalism Practice and Standards
Instructor	Saranaz Barforoush & Ori Tenenboim
Authors	Bhagyashree, Bridget, Luke, & Tori
Published	December 2022

Introduction

In 2019, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans released a report on the state of Canadian Pacific salmon. The report summarized the changes that have occurred in salmon populations and their ecosystems. Pacific salmon were observed to have been impacted by marine heatwaves, warmer temperatures in rivers and lakes, changes to food webs, floods and droughts, all of which can be attributed to climate change. Chinook salmon population abundances are declining in B.C. and Yukon, while Sockeye and Coho abundances are declining in southern B.C., with some of these populations listed as Endangered or Threatened by The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). In contrast, Pink and Chum salmon are faring better than other species, but certain populations of Chum, Skeena and Nass Chum are still in decline. The populations that are faring well have demonstrated a higher resilience to the effects of climate change and will provide scientists with insight into how to manage Pacific salmon stocks in the future. Such populations tend to spawn in Northern Canada, have a short freshwater rearing stage and are not adapted to a specific spawning site, allowing them to move sites when temperatures vary.

In 2021 and 2022, media coverage of the decline in Pacific salmon species abundances has focused largely on the impact of climate change induced weather events on Pacific salmon populations and their habitats. For example, the 2022 drought in B.C., which lasted from July until mid-October, prompted numerous articles on the drought’s impact on Pacific salmon - including a video that was posted on social media showing thousands of salmon lying dead in the dried-out Neekas Creek. In the aftermath of the 2021 B.C. floods, the media also focused on the impacts of flooding on salmon.

An ongoing debate, demonstrated by media coverage on the issue, is whether or not aquaculture is a sustainable solution to overfishing. In 2021, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) announced plans to work with the B.C. government and Indigenous communities to transition away from open-net pen salmon farming on the B.C. coast by 2025. The announcement follows calls from activists, scientists, and Indigenous communities who say that open-net pen farms threaten wild salmon populations through the spread of disease. However, many Indigenous communities have a financial stake in aquaculture, complicating their stance on open-net pen farming.

Our group will analyse coverage on the issue of declining abundances of Pacific salmon populations from three B.C. news companies (Campbell River Mirror (CRM), The Narwhal and The Vancouver Sun) and one Canadian charity that advocates for wildlife conservation in B.C. (Pacific Wild).

Mentioning climate change

Coverage

Climate change is caused mainly by the burning of fossil fuels and land-use changes from anthropogenic activities. In B.C., climate change has led to droughts, flooding, wildfires and warming water temperatures. In recent years, rivers in B.C. have reached record-high temperatures, which poses a threat to Pacific salmon populations as warm temperatures during spawning migrations are associated with high mortality. For example, since the 1950s, summer water temperatures in the Fraser River have risen 1.5°C and it is predicted there will be a 9 to16 per cent decrease in Fraser River salmon stocks by the end of the century.

In a listicle, Pacific Wild lists climate change as one of the “top human-caused threats” to wild salmon. It explains how climate change is causing a rise in ocean temperatures, ocean acidification from increased CO2 concentrations, unpredictable weather which destroys eggs and spawning grounds and unfavourable freshwater conditions that predispose salmon to parasites and diseases.

Image of thousands of dead salmon that were found dead in the Neekas River this fall, due to a climate-induced drought that dried out the river. Photo by Sarah Mund.

In contrast, the CRM’s coverage of the declines in Pacific salmon stocks fails to mention the threat of climate change in numerous articles. One article blames “a record-setting drought” for the thousands of dead salmon found in Neekas Creek. The article quotes the conservation manager for the Heiltsuk Integrated Resource Management Department who attributes the die-off to low oxygen levels and high water temperatures. However, the article does not specifically state that climate change was the cause of these conditions. Another article notes how environmental changes in oceans and rivers are causing declines in Pacific salmon abundance and productivity; however, once again, the article does not say that climate change is behind those changes, and instead focuses on the impacts of the logging industry. A similar article also discusses how logging in watersheds is contributing to the degradation of salmon habitat, along with climate change. The article explains how clear-cut logging contributes to more severe floods and landslides, which can wash away salmon eggs from their spawning grounds. The article says that the impacts of logging are “compounded by climate change,” which also increases the risk of flooding, wildfires and atmospheric rivers — all of which threaten Pacific salmon. However, the focus of the article is on the impacts of the logging industry itself, and seems to frame the issue such that the logging industry is the reason why aquatic ecosystems cannot withstand climate change.

The Narwhal’s coverage of the decline in Pacific salmon populations focuses on how anthropogenic activities are only adding to the stress already placed on Pacific salmon by climate change. Two recent articles discuss how work on the Coastal GasLink pipeline is a threat to salmon and salmon habitat. The first notes how Coastal GasLink’s work will only add further stress on the population, which inhabits a watershed that, like most in Western North America, is being degraded by climate change. The second quotes a fisheries biologist who explains how when considering the impact of the Coastal GasLink pipeline, a holistic approach will provide salmon with the most protection. The biologist discusses how salmon are not only threatened by the work being done on the pipeline, but by the compounding effects of climate change, land development and logging. The Narwhal also published an article about how hatcheries are being used to help Pacific salmon recover; however, the article explains that hatcheries are not a long-term solution to the problem, as climate change has significantly altered ocean and river conditions and decreased the quality and quantity of food, thus making it difficult for hatchery-bred salmon to survive and reproduce. Like the CRM, The Narwhal published an article about the recent drought and the thousands of salmon that were found dead in Neekas Creek; however, unlike the CRM, The Narwhal does attribute the drought to climate change and explained that “long-term persistent climate change” has been changing salmon habitat “over the last 20 to 25 years.”

The Vancouver Sun also discusses how salmon stocks have reached “historic lows,” and lists habitat and climate change as some of the causes in a 2021 article; however, the article does not focus on the threats to Pacific salmon, but instead discusses how the federal government plans to allocate funds to protect Pacific salmon. A 2022 article from The Sun also covered the mass die-off of salmon in the Neekas River. Like the Campbell River Mirror, the Sun spoke to William Housty, the conservation manager for the Heiltsuk Integrated Resource Management Department. The Sun included a quote from Housty which attributed the die-off to climate change:“I would say that it is 100 per cent climate change because we have never seen this magnitude of pre-spawn mortality.” It is notable that The Sun chose to include a quote from Housty stating climate change as the cause of the die-off, while the Campbell River Mirror did not.

Analysis of Climate Coverage

Overall, the Narwhal provided the most detailed explanation of how salmon are impacted by climate change, taking into consideration all of the complexities and compounding effects of climate change and other anthropogenic threats. As a non-profit online magazine that aims to “follow the facts” and “tell it like it is,” the Narwhal’s reporting on Pacific salmon reflects their journalistic aims.  Unlike the Narwhal, the CRM seemed to avoid naming climate change as the underlying cause of the droughts, low oxygen levels, warm water temperatures and other river conditions that are currently threatening Pacific salmon populations throughout B.C. The CRM is owned by Black Press Media, which operates local newspapers throughout the western and northwestern U.S. and Canada. On its “About Us” page, Black Press states it has “roots in some of the oldest, trusted newspapers in B.C.,” which indicates that the CRM takes a traditional approach to their storytelling and likely has an audience that skews towards older generations and rural populations. As a result, the CRM’s editors might have chosen to refrain from naming climate change specifically, to cater to an audience that might not yet have fully embraced the idea that there is a need for climate action. As a charity that advocates for wildlife conservation, it is no surprise that Pacific Wild emphasizes the threat climate change poses to Pacific salmon. However, as Pacific Wild is a charity and does not practice journalism, it lacked coverage of current climate caused threats to Pacific salmon, like the drought this fall that led to a mass die-off of salmon in the Neekas River. Therefore, the urgency with which climate change must be combated to protect Pacific salmon, might be lost on those who refer only to Pacific Wild. Finally, the quality of the Vancouver Sun’s coverage of the impact of climate change on Pacific salmon, fell somewhere in the middle. The Sun’s coverage lacked the detailed and holistic approach of the Narwhal, but included specific mentions of climate change, unlike CRM. Both the Sun and the CRM used the same source when reporting on the thousands of dead salmon that were found in the Neekas River. However, only the Sun chose to include a quote from the source stating that climate change was the cause of the die-off. This might reflect the difference in each publication’s imagined audience (i.e. the people they believe they are communicating with; Nelson, 2021). As a paper in a large metropolitan center, the Sun’s audience has perhaps embraced climate action more than the CRM’s audience.

A Spirit bear (rare subspecies of black bear with white fur) catching a salmon in a river in B.C.’s Great Bear Rainforest. Photo by Daisy Gilardini.

Noticeable omissions from each publication’s coverage are the ecological impacts of the decline of salmon populations. When climate change leads to lower population sizes and reproduction rates in Pacific salmon species, the impacts are felt across the ecosystem. Salmon are the prey species to many terrestrial and marine predators, such as Orca whales and Grizzly bears. Salmon also act as ecosystem engineers, providing structure to river habitats and changing sediment composition during the spawning season. Therefore, understanding the importance of Pacific salmon in their ecosystems will help to inform conservation management decisions and the public should be informed about the value salmon hold in their ecosystems. However, the publications we examined mainly focused on the human impact of declining salmon populations, such as their cultural significance to Indigenous communities and the importance of salmon fisheries in B.C. Only Pacific Wild discussed the importance of salmon for other species in an interview with a wildlife photographer, who noted the importance of salmon for the larger ecosystem, and particularly, the bear species that prey on salmon.

The Narwhal’s coverage of the impact of climate change used a thematic framework, while the CRM’s and The Vancouver Sun’s coverage used an episodic framework. How a story is framed impacts readers’ perceptions of who should be responsible for resolving an issue. Episodic framing depicts an issue using a case study or a concrete example, and tends to reduce the complexity of the issue, making it easier for readers to understand. In contrast, thematic framing presents issues in an “abstract context,” providing background information and allowing the reader to understand the implications of a current story in the context of a wider social issue. The Narwhal demonstrates thematic framing throughout their coverage by presenting current events in the context of broader social issues. For example, when discussing the impacts of the Coastal GasLink pipeline, the Narwhal explained how the current threat of the project will only add to the already complex problem of declining salmon populations, which have been threatened for decades by climate change, habitat degradation and other anthropogenic threats. The Narwhal’s framing of the issue, likely reflects the demands of their audience and their agenda as a non-profit investigative magazine. As the Narwhal aims to tell the environmental stories that are often overlooked by traditional media, those who subscribe to the Narwhal are likely interested in stories that provide context and would be willing to read longer articles that provide more detail and background information. In contrast, both the CRM and The Sun reported only on current events impacting Pacific salmon, without providing the same context to the issue. The approach of these papers reflects their audience as well. As the CRM and The Vancouver Sun are traditional media outlets who cater to a general audience—one that is not necessarily interested in environmental issues—episodic framing better serves their audience, as issues are presented in an accessible way.

Fish Farming

Federal, provincial and municipal governments are being forced to reckon with a decline in Pacific salmon. In 2020, Salmon fishing and farming contributed $1.6 billion, annually, to B.C.’s economy.

As each level of government confronts the decline in stock, B.C.’s unique open-net pen salmon farms (ONPF) have been singled out. These fish farms are large floating cages or nets that contain hundreds of thousands of fish. They're also partly responsible for unhealthy and declining Salmon stocks in B.C.; the pens allow sea lice and pathogens to spread among the captive salmon, which then spills out into wild salmon populations. In 2021, “nearly 60 per cent of B.C.’s commercial salmon fisheries were shuttered” by the DFO in an effort to boost salmon populations.

Some communities also rely on seasonal sport fishing and salmon watching to drive tourism. The Campbell River Mirror is the only publication which publishes articles aimed at informing sport fishers and tourists.

An open-net pen fish farm on B.C.'s coast. Photo by Travish Campbell.

Coverage of open-net pen farms (ONPF)

As part of its outreach, Pacific Wild suggests readers engage with their “newly elected MPs” on the question of open-net pen salmon farms. Readers are told to ask their leaders “how will your government uphold commitments of open-pen net salmon farms? What is your government’s stance on fish farming?”

The Campbell River Mirror tackles the question of open-net pen salmon farms frequently, providing the most regular updates on the issue of any of the four papers we looked at. Coverage of ONPF skews overwhelmingly negative, from the first article in the time frame examined, which highlights environmental interests to the exclusion of economic interests, to two Op-Eds, and finally a letter from the environmental advocacy group, the Sierra Club. Only twice does the paper center an industry perspective without counterarguments preceding and following said perspective. The paper also elevates research on the environmental impact of ONPF performed by independent (non-government) groups.

While the CRM continued to report on ONPF phase-outs and court cases, they stopped reminding their readers of the environmental impacts of the practice around late 2021.

Frustrations with the DFO are also frequently expressed by the subjects of CRM’s stories. Complaints revolve around the timeline for phase-outs (example) and a lack of transparency.

After the CRM, the Vancouver Sun covers ONPF the most. Again, coverage of OPNF skews overwhelmingly negative, though some articles bury damning consequences of the fish farms for salmon late into their articles. Three out of seven articles about ONPF are centered around tying the farms’ usage to the decline of Salmon.

Criticism towards the Federal Government, unlike the CRM, comes in the form of quotes by activists, Indigenous leaders, and rival politicians.

The paper also covered a UBC study that found the practice enormously harmful to wild salmon, with a small response from industry spokespeople towards the bottom of the piece, followed by a rebuttal in the form of another study. No Vancouver Sun piece relies mostly on an industry perspective on ONPF, though one article explicitly about Salmon Farmers does rely on commentary by executive director of the B.C. Salmon Farmers Association.

The Narwhal tackles open-net pen fishing in three instalments. The first centers on conservation efforts aimed at maintaining an Indigenous lifestyle that’s enmeshed with Pacific salmon. Unlike the CRM, which assumes some knowledge from its readers on the controversy around ONPF, The Narwhal introduces the environmental impacts of the practice early on in its first article in the examined time frame, and repeats them later in the piece. The article also raises a history of fraught relations between the DFO and fishing communities, including Indigenous groups.

The Narwhal’s next two articles on ONPF tackle the vague timeline and transition plan for the federal government’s 2025 ONPF phase-out. The first of the two is a critical assessment of the industry, suggesting that companies are seeking to eschew the phase-out mandate using partnerships with Indigenous communities. The next article is a critical analysis of the federal government’s language on the phase-out, centering the perspective of the Watershed Watch Salmon Society, a conservation group. Both articles repeatedly remind readers of the impact of ONPF on salmon populations — addressing the decline in populations and attributing it, in part, to the “pests and viruses” spread by the farms.

Analysis of ONPF Coverage

Every one of the papers we looked at tied the decline of BC salmon to Open-Net Pen Fishing. The degree to which they advocated for solutions to the farm and criticized public and private institutions depended on their paper’s mission, proximity to fishing economies, and size of the paper.

Fish swim in from of a floating farm. Photo by Travish Campbell.

Pacific Wild and The Narwhal’s missions as news outlets provide the clearest explanations for their coverage of ONPF. Pacific Wild’s coverage consists of calling their readers to action. As an advocacy-first group, it tracks that their coverage would extend no further than enumerating the flaws of ONPF, then putting the ball in their readers’ court. The Narwhal’s coverage is consistent with their mission, too. Their desire to provide explanatory coverage of news issues means that every one of their three articles on the farms will remind readers of their link to Salmon decline, even though that’s not the focus of any one of their three articles.

The CRM and Vancouver Sun’s coverage of ONPF is less explained by their missions, and more by their proximity to the farms, and their size.

The CRM, based in Campbell River, is a paper for a town with a strong fishing culture. The importance of healthy salmon runs to the paper’s readers, as demonstrated by their repeated coverage of salmon runs and advertising for fishing opportunities, means they’ll have to cover, in good faith, threats to salmon populations. The Vancouver Sun, repeatedly acknowledging the importance of healthy salmon stocks to the province, has a similar, salmon-defending impetus for publishing. That the paper’s coverage of ONPF skews more editorial than the Vancouver Sun is an extension of the paper’s size. Local media often takes on an advocacy role for its community, reflecting and commenting on local happenings, which include threats to salmon populations in the form of ONPF.

Centering Indigenous expertise

The Coast Salish people of the Canadian Pacific coast depend on salmon as a staple food source, as they have done for thousands of years. Salmon has also served as a source of wealth and trade and is deeply embedded in their culture, identity and existence as First Nations people of Canada.

Joe Martin. Tla-o-qui-aht member. Tribal Parks Guardian and elected member of council for TFN. Master carver. Photo by David Moskowitz

According to the University of British Columbia (UBC) Indigenous Foundation’s report, “since fishing required allocation and sharing of seasonal resources between families and  tribes fisheries management was not a distinct practice separate from government and law; it was integrated in systems of privileged and rank, distinct forms of production and exchange, including extensive networks of ceremonial redistribution and trade.” While salmon was an important part of their traditional and social practices, it was also a major form of trade and communication between villages. The First Nations did not give up their right to manage their own fisheries; it was taken from them.

“Local and Indigenous knowledge” refers to the understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings. For Indigenous peoples, local knowledge informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of day-to-day life. Thus, incorporating the expertise of Indigenous people is of utmost importance to the cause of conserving Pacific salmon populations in B.C.

Analysis

Pacific Wild talks about the Indigenous Nations Guardian programs and the funding they received in a few articles. They also talk about various monitoring initiatives: Indigenous Guardian Watchmen Program, Indigenous Nations Stewardship Programs, SFU Reynolds Lab partnership with Heiltsuk Nation. Thus, trying to incorporate different perspectives. Their approach to include ‘top questions’ helps in better engaging with the audience. The CRM also has, in certain articles, incorporated the knowledge of Indigenous experts. However, in one of their articles the use of  passive-aggressive language exists, for instance, the statement, “while some Vancouver Island First Nations are busy protesting the aquaculture industry, the Coalition of First Nations for Finfish Stewardship (the Coalition) is thanking Fisheries Minister Joyce Murray for her recent tour and consultations." The Narwhal and the Vancouver Sun have also explored the article on various events. The Narwhal has done a better job of monitoring the government with its coverage by keeping the government accountable. For instance, the article ‘The federal government is less likely to protect an at-risk fish if people like to eat it’ has been successful in critiquing the government.

Solutions-focused

A solutions approach to journalism involves presenting solutions to the issues being discussed, instead of simply identifying them. Research by American journalism professor and researcher Karen McIntyre found that discussing potential solutions to a social problem caused readers to feel less negatively about the news story than if no solution was discussed. While a solutions approach to news stories didn’t seem to impact whether or not readers took action, McIntyre still concluded that it plays a role in mitigating the negativity of conflict-based news.

McIntyre conducted another study in 2021, showing that 56 per cent of Americans want to stay informed despite the news causing them stress. The Montgomery Advertiser, Alabama’s largest daily newspaper, found that a transition to solutions-focused journalism resulted in more page views and longer engagement times, compared to traditional stories. Facebook and Twitter sentiment analysis also confirmed that positive feelings about the publication increased and negative ones decreased.

Solutions-Focused Coverage

While the Vancouver Sun provided a couple of peripheral solutions to the decrease in Pacific salmon, The Narwhal provided a ray of hope in one article discussing how “salmon are better at changing than humans” — referring to Arctic salmon, who’ve adapted greatly over the last decade. They also looked at removing dikes, such as those in the Fraser river, as a solution to mitigate the impacts of flooding and help to restore salmon habitats. A couple of other articles also looked at a Squamish estuary restorative project with the Indigenous community, and how the Syilx Okanagan First Nation collaborated with U.S. Indigenous communities to open a hatchery and launch conservation programs in the Okanagan. The second article is careful to point out that scientists are worried about hatchery fish posing a threat to wild salmon, and point to a more holistic approach — such as an international agreement — as the solution to rescue decreasing salmon stocks.

Photograph of a bear with a salmon in his mouth. Photo by Daisy Gilardini.

Pacific Wild promotes photography as a way to raise awareness for environmental issues and pushes for an accurate salmon count as a potential solution to the salmon crisis. Pacific Wild mentioned that although the DFO announced $142.5 million toward the protection of wild salmon, over the last 15 years they’ve decreased their monitoring by over 60 per cent. Having accurate data about salmon numbers is crucial in making informed decisions in the conservation effort, they argue in various articles — claiming that “fewer than ten per cent of B.C.’s salmon runs are actually monitored”. In terms of current solutions, there is also an article outlining what’s missing in the Pacific Salmon Foundation Salmon Explorer and the DFO’s New Escapement Salmon Database, and then another article highlighting projects that Pacific Wild believes need more funding, such as the Local Charter Patrolmen, Indigenous Guardian Watchment Program, Indigenous Nations Stewardship Programs and SFU Reynolds Lab partnership with Heiltsuk Nation.

The closest the CRM comes to solutions journalism is mentioning that water would be pumped from Upper Quinsam Lake to Wokas Lake. BC Hydro took emergency action as Wokas lake is a salmon spawning zone and this drought would be detrimental to the Pacific salmon populations.

Analysis of Solutions-Focused Coverage

Solutions journalism is a type of explanatory journalism that stems from the need to see change. It should be investigative and distinct from advocacy or a push for a certain solution, and shouldn’t focus solely on celebrating a singular person or organization. Ideally, it should also contain information about the limitations of the proposed solution, and use thematic framing to examine the root cause of the issue.

The Narwhal does this well, discussing how the removal of dikes is a solution to mitigate flooding and help protect salmon habitats. They also mentioned restorative projects and conservation programs with local Indigenous nations, and point out why scientists are worried about hatchery fish — explaining the limitations, and how to try and work around it, with a more holistic approach.

Pacific Wild, on the other hand, seems to lean more toward advocacy with all of their pieces. The promotion of photography as a way to raise awareness seems to be focused solely on Daisy’s work, and the framing of their other articles seems to be more focused on laying the blame on why there is a decrease in salmon monitoring — what they clearly state that they believe to be the solution. They do mention a variety of organizations that should be funded better though, not only focusing on one group or person, which fulfils the requirement that solutions journalism contain evidence to prove that an approach will benefit the community and speak through various experts and sources, not just a journalist’s personal opinion or a puff piece.

The CRM simply mentioned a solution that was already taken without how this might be used as a model for other issues, and the Vancouver Sun provides a couple of peripheral solutions. This makes sense, as they are both more focused on hard news and briefly explaining events and news the community should know about.

Advocacy

Coverage

Media advocacy is defined as the use of mass media to advance public policy initiatives, shifting focus “from the personal to the social, from the individual to the political." While Wallack takes a public health policy approach, the concept still applies to traditional media, like the Vancouver Sun and the Campbell River Mirror, that aim to fill the “knowledge gap” surrounding the decline of wild pacific salmon, while The Narwhal and Pacific Wild take a media advocacy approach to address the “power gap.”

While solutions journalism might provide remedies, advocacy provides avenues for individuals to solicit change. If reader sentiment becomes less negative when reading solutions journalism, perhaps following it up with advocacy will make the transition to action easier. At the end of every Pacific Wild article in their Salmon Count campaign, such as this one, there is a call to action to send a letter to Minister Murray and to donate to Pacific Wild to help make a difference for wild salmon.

Screenshot from Pacific Wild's article, "Top Threats to Pacific Salmon."

Pacific Wild’s initiatives also include influencing public opinion by encouraging readers to contact politicians to push for change, such as with “Our Top Questions To Ask Your Newly Elected MPs.”

On the other hand, advocacy from traditional media like the Campbell River Mirror comes in the form of opinion pieces, including this business-friendly article criticizing the government’s failure to protect salmon and this article calling out the DFO for failing to commit to the Pacific Salmon Strategy Initiative (PSSI).

The Narwhal also has an article calling out the DFO for signing off on a salmon population rebuilding plan with Wet’suwet’en, while not doing anything to stop Coastal GasLink, which is just upstream. Another article seems to take a stance against open-net pen farms and discusses how the federal government’s language to transition away from them is non-committal.

The Vancouver Sun’s approach is to provide a phone number to report illegal fishing to the DFO, and let people know that they should only buy fish from licensed vendors — filling the knowledge gap but not advocating for change specifically.

Analysis

A publication’s decision to write more advocacy-focused articles is likely in line with whether they aim to provide solutions-focused stories, or focus on hard news. A possible explanation for the variety of approaches in the four papers examined is their organizational structures, policies, goals and ownership.

Pacific Wild is a charity and positions itself as “the leading voice for Wildlife Conservation" and aims to use their storytelling and leverage their partnerships to “influence policy, public opinion, and legislative change to more urgently support healthy and protected ecosystems that can sustain optimal biodiversity throughout the northwest Pacific region." This allows them to advocate for specific responses and hold government officials accountable by writing articles that encourage readers to ask questions and send letters.

On the other hand, the Vancouver Sun (Post Media) and the CRM (Black Press) are more traditional sources of media. Post Media’s mission is to keep Canadians in the know by “delivering high-value and data-driven marketing solutions to businesses and advertisers." Black Press Media’s About Us page notes the importance of community in journalism, but also mentions their results-driven marketing excellence and business opportunities. Note how both mention businesses and marketing or advertising — likely allowing them less room to be critical of corporations and government bodies.

The Narwhal lands somewhere in the middle, as a non-profit online magazine, tired of false dichotomies and with the belief that “Canada’s greatest assets are our people, our lakes, our rivers, our forests." They aren’t trying to directly influence public opinion and push readers to take action, however, they are a non-profit publication and state that their goal isn’t to “sell advertising or to please corporate bigwigs — it’s to bring evidence-based news and analysis to the surface for our readers."

Looking at the different roles of journalists, it seems that Pacific Wild takes on the monitorial role, acting as critical observers and scrutinizing government claims. They’ve also taken on the interventionist role, actively engaging in a mission to promote specific values. The Narwhal also appears to take on a monitoral role and holds power accountable, but does not intervene or actively suggest that their readers do so. Both the Vancouver Sun and the CRM take on more of an accommodative role, as evidenced by their orientation for audiences as consumers and catering to business interests and marketing. This still means that they provide factual content that is appealing, useful and recognized community values, it is just less focused on holding power accountable or prompting action.

Conclusion

The most important theme to emerge from our comparative analysis was the importance of episodic versus thematic framing. Episodic framing presents a news story as a one-off; a standalone installment that’s not linked to any wider issue. The CRM and the Vancouver Sun were the two papers most likely to present a story as episodic. That’s not to say that their stories on B.C.’s declining salmon population don’t have value; The CRM rightly assumes knowledge and investment from its readership on issues affecting pacific salmon stocks. But in the Sun’s episodic coverage, we start to see the cracks in the approach. The Sun’s wide readership means those consuming the articles on pacific salmon declines won’t be as intimately familiar with the vast array of challenges facing the fish. In an effort to keep it’s readers informed, the Sun tends to mix episodic and thematic framing more than the CRM.

Thematic framing presents issues in their wider context. In a story about thousands of salmon being found dead in a creek after an unprecedented drought, a paper that embraces thematic framing will link the event to climate change. That’s the storytelling we saw being embraced in Pacific Wild and The Narwhal. As an outlet explicitly focused on advocacy, Pacific Wild is always likely to embrace thematic framing; why should readers feel compelled to pursue change if not for a bigger threat that’s behind declines in salmon stocks in B.C.? Outlets that pursue solutions journalism are similarly likely to present their stories through a thematic frame, given their need to present a problem as demanding a solution. Thematic framing helps the reader see that it’s a dire situation and prompts more action and calls on the government to do more to protect salmon.

The Narwhal’s thematic framing aligns with its mission to be a hub for explanatory journalism. No story would be complete for the outlet without a discussion of the underlying causes of an issue, which compels the paper to tackle issues like climate change and ONPF in its articles — even if they center around other issues. The Sun dabbles in thematic framing, but does so in a minimal fashion, like burying the links between salmon decline and, say, climate change, towards the end of an article.

How media frames the issue impacts how people advocate for salmon conservation. For readers who aren’t well-versed in the challenges facing B.C.’s pacific salmon population, papers that presented stories using a thematic frame provide the most complete scope and compelling story. They are critically important to understanding the episodic installments offered by outlets like the Campbell River Mirror and the Vancouver Sun. There are plenty of challenges facing B.C.’s pacific salmon stocks. The Narwhal is best equipped to present those challenges in a comprehensive fashion, which makes the CRM and the Vancouver Sun more digestible. Pacific Wild stands apart — presenting a compelling, complete, but self-contained narrative that leaves the reader on their own to pursue change armed with a thematic overview of the situation.

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