Course:GEOS303/2023/Ecuador

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Ecuador on the globe (South America centred). © TUBS, CC BY - SA 3.0

Ecuador is a country in South America that is nestled between Columbia and Peru with a population of 18 million as of 2022[1]. It is one of the smallest, yet most densely populated countries in South America and is one of the 17 most megadiverse countries in the world[2]. Ecuador is also home to many endemic species[3]. This is largely due to Ecuador’s latitudinal position, the mountain range known as the Andes as well as the influence of Atlantic trade winds, warm currents from the Pacific Ocean and cold water coming from the Humboldt current[3]. Ecuador is made up of three physiographic regions which are the Coastal region, the Andes and the Amazon[3]. The Galapagos are another important part of Ecuador which is an archipelago unique for its biodiversity[4]. Despite Ecuador being such a diversity hotspot, the country has historically experienced severe anthropogenic threats such as deforestation and land-use change which are still present today[4].  

The Coastal Lowlands, the Andean Highlands and the Amazon

Climate and biomes

Climate

The climate in Ecuador is heavily dependent on location and is especially influenced by the Andes. The coastal region and the Galapagos Islands are characterized by a humid subtropical climate with two seasons which are a rainy season and a dry summer season whereas the mountain valleys have a more temperate climate with a rainy and dry season[5]. The climate of the Amazon has year-long rainfall, especially in the eastern part of the Amazon[5].  

The climate of Ecuador is heavily influenced by the El Nino Southern Oscillation where there is an increase in rainfall and therefore flooding along the coastal region and the western Andes but droughts in the northern and eastern parts of the country[5].  

The average temperatures for the coastal region range between a 2°C to 3°C difference between the hot and cold months[5]. The Andean valleys in the rainy season have an average temperature of 14.5°C and during the dry season an average temperature of 15°C[5]. The Amazon has an average yearly temperature of about 21°C and the Galapagos Islands experience an average temperature of about 25°C to 26°C during the rainy season but during the dry season experience average temperatures of about 21°C to 22°C[5].

Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forest

Map of tropical and subtropical broadleaf dry forest biome in Ecuador
The Walter-Leith diagram of the dry broadleaf forest biome in Ecuador

In Ecuador, the tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest biome exists between the Ecuadorian Pacific ocean coast and the western slope of the Andes mountains, and consists of two types of forests, deciduous and semi-deciduous[6]. In total 24 different ecosystems are known to exist within the seasonal dry forest biome, with the Ecuadorian dry forest ecoregion being the dominating area[6].

Within the coastal areas of the tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest, the main geographical features are the Guayas River, the Esmeraldas River, and the Coastal mountain range[6]. Climatically, this biome exists within extreme conditions, as the annual rainfall of 400-600 mm occurs in the span of three to four months, from February to April, and the dry season lasts between six and eight months in the deciduous forest and one to six months in the semi-deciduous regions[6]. The mean annual temperature in tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest is 24.9 ° C, and the potential evapotranspiration is 1783 mm/year[6].

Mangroves

Mangroves in Ecuador

A dominant biome/ecoregion in Ecuador are mangroves. Mangroves exist in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world[7]. The main features of mangroves are that their ecosystems consist of very harsh conditions, such as high temperatures, salinity, and sedimentation[7]. Due to their high tolerance for salinity, mangroves are able to act as a buffer between the marine and terrestrial ecosystems[8]. Mangroves consist of tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs near coastal lagoons, clay/silt bays, marshlands, river deltas, and low-lying sand bars[8]. In these areas, mangroves may consist of smaller sub-sections along the shoreline, or they can extend into dense forest hundreds of hectors inland[8]. Mangroves are highly productive and crucial because of their importance in protecting and stabilizing the coastline as well as providing nursing grounds for various flora and fauna[7].  

Mangroves in Ecuador are mostly found along river estuaries such as the Mataje-Santiago-Cayapas and Muisne[9]. There are two different kinds of Mangroves in Ecuador which are known as the Choco Equatorial mangrove and the Jama-Zapotillo mangrove[9].  

Cloud Forest

The tropical montane cloud forest biome of Ecuador is most prevalent within the Andes mountain range[10]. This biome experiences high humidity and recurring cloud and mist cover, along with high amounts of annual rainfall ranging from 1500 to 3300mm[10][11]. The wet season spans most of the year from October to May, with the dry season of approximately 4 months lasting from  June to September[11]. The average temperature of the Andean cloud forest biome ranges annually from as low as 15 °C to 17 °C up to 25 °C[10][11]. The cloud forest biome is a highly biodiverse area that historically faced the threat of deforestation, and continues to do so today. Much of the cloud forest that previously existed at lower elevations has been converted to agricultural land, leaving any remaining cloud forests in a fragmented state[10].

Desert Xeric Scrub

The Desert Xeric Scrub biome dominates one area of Ecuador - the Galapagos Islands. This biome spans all 128 named islands, and due to their distance from the mainland, are home to many endemic species. In response to this isolated speciation, the Galapagos Islands have been designated their own ecoregion - "Galapagos Islands Xeric Scrub."[12] This island biome is home to over 500 native species, of which about 180 are endemic. The Galapagos Islands Xeric Scrub is also home to 20 endemic reptiles, including the Giant Tortoise, and is well known for its finches, studied by Charles Darwin as he researched his theory of evolution.[12]

This biome is home to two seasons, wet and dry, which are strongly influenced by ocean currents. The wet season spans January to May, and is characterized by warm temperatures and variable rainfall at all latitudes. The dry season makes up the months of June to December, and is characterized by cool temperatures, with high levels of rainfall at high elevations, but practically no precipitation at lower elevation of the lowlands.[13]

Flooded grasslands and savannas

Flooded grassland in Yasuni National Park, Ecuador

Nestled within this climate mosaic are the flooded grasslands and savannas, primarily found in the eastern lowlands towards the Amazon Basin. These biomes experience a tropical wet and dry climate[14]. The wet season, coinciding with the Amazonian rainfall, results in significant flooding, turning vast expanses into aquatic landscapes. Conversely, the dry season sees these areas morph into open grasslands and sporadic tree-dotted savannas. The flooded regions provide critical habitat for a plethora of wildlife. Birds like the Jabiru stork and hoatzin, aquatic creatures like the caiman and river dolphins, and mammals like the capybara all thrive here, benefitting from the dynamic interplay of water and land[15][16].

Geographically, the terrain is relatively flat but becomes a canvas painted with numerous water channels, lagoons, and palm swamps, primarily due to the overflow of rivers and local rainfall. The constantly changing water levels have led to a specialized ecosystem of both aquatic and terrestrial plants[17].

Diversity

Diversity in Northwest Ecuador

The two ecoregions of the Andes mountains and the Choco tropical forest, which meet in Northwestern Ecuador, contain high amounts of diversity, having approximately 18.5% of the diversity of terrestrial vertebrates[18]. Within this region, many species can be found within relatively small areas, such as in the Mindo valley, which has 101 reptilian and amphibian species contained within 268 , at the Bilsa Biological station, where 109 species of reptiles and amphibians exist within 33 [18]. One of the drivers of the pattern of high amounts of herpetofauna biodiversity in this area of Ecuador is thought to be the presence of several rivers, such as the Rio Guayllabamba, and the Rio Esmeraldas, as well as the dry valley of the Rio Chimbo, which function as geographic barriers to the dispersal of species[18]. As these barriers separate populations of amphibians and reptiles in this case, the populations will diverge and undergo allopatric speciation.

Diversity in the Andes

The Andes in Ecuador

The continent of South America was isolated for a long period of time during the Cretaceous and Tertiary period of geological history which resulted in high levels of endemism in Ecuador, specifically in the Andes[19]. The Andes are a climatically and ecologically diverse mountain range running through seven countries in South America[20]. The vast differences in the environments from the uplift of the Andes, in particular the elevational gradient, has led to allopatric speciation whereby populations of species are isolated from one another, increasing the number of species in the Andes[19]. The west part of the Andes has been found to have higher levels of speciation compared to the south[19]. More than 15000 species of vascular plants are found in the Andes, with many plant species being endemic[19]. This high speciation of plants is influenced by the different elevation gradients along the Andes, limiting species to smaller niches, thereby increasing the number of different species present[21].

Diversity in the Galápagos Islands

The Galápagos islands have long been a well known hotspot of endemic species, due to the isolation of the island chain from mainland Ecuador, and Charles Darwin's work with Galapagos finches. The Galapagos Islands are home to some of the highest levels of endemism on the planet. This includes about 80% of land birds, 97% of land mammals and reptiles, and 30% of plants[22]. Plant biodiversity of the Galapagos differs significantly from mainland Ecuador, with the archipelago's estimated 1,425 plant species (600 native, 825 introduced by humans) dwarfed by mainland Ecuador's broad range of over 20,000 plant species[22]. This stark difference highlights two key aspects of the Galapagos islands - their location and their age. the Galapagos islands are not only a hot spot for endemic species, but also a magma hot spot on the Nazca tectonic plate[23]. The islands are estimated to be between 2.35 and 4.04 million years old[24], quite young on the scale of geologic time of Earth. This relative newness, couples with the vast expanse of 1,000 km of ocean barrier between the Galapagos and South America have resulted in a relatively small number of species - native or introduced. This includes the famous Galapagos tortoises, marine iguanas, Galapagos sea lions, and various species of finches, commonly referred to as Darwin's finches[22]. The Galapagos Islands show a high level of adaptive radiation in species, a process where species diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms. This phenomenon is best exemplified by Darwin's finches. These birds evolved different beak shapes and sizes adapted to the specific food sources available on their respective islands[22]. Geography of the Galápagos varies, with different islands having their own distinct climates and habitats. This means that even within the small confines of the archipelago, species could evolve in relative isolation, leading to high levels of endemism not only within the archipelago, but on individual islands[22]. Sea currents also have a major impact on marine biodiversity, with interplay between the cold Cromwell Current and the warmer Panama Current affecting marine biodiversity as well a climate on the islands, further influencing terrestrial biodiversity[22].

Human influences

Human Influences on Galápagos Islands

The Galápagos islands are an interesting case of anthropogenic and environmental interactions. The islands were settled quite late in human history, and this along with its geographic isolation, and early work to conserve the area have allowed for substantial protection from anthropogenic damage. However, despite all conservation strategies, the Galápagos islands are beginning to feel the impacts of humans more greatly.

The Galápagos islands saw their first settlers in 1832. During early days of settlement in the 19th century, marine species such as whales, sea lions, and fur seals were hunted heavily[25]. This halted in 1959, with the creation of the Galápagos National Park. This began the longstanding era of conservation, starting with the protection of land iguanas, tortoises, fur seals, and sea lions. In 1978, the islands were declared a UNESCO world heritage site, and in 1986, the Galápagos Marine Reserve was put in place to protect 70,000 square kilometres of surrounding ocean, increased to 133,000 kilometres in 1998[25]. These protections were put in place in an effort to conserve the natural evolution laboratory of the Galápagos Islands, and to protect the multitudes of endemic species native to the archipelago.

Despite these protections, these biodiverse islands remain vulnerable. As the popularity of the Galápagos islands has increased, tourism has seen an increase of 37% between 2009 and 2018, with the islands seeing more than 200,000 tourists annually[25]. This increase has led to a spike in residents, as more jobs become available in the tourism industry. Growing population of humans threatens already endangered species, leading to habitat loss and an increase in introduced species. This unsustainable tourism has also increased urban pollution though higher demand for more services and commodities, and the need for more materials, energy and goods increasing marine traffic[25]. Urban pollution is beginning to place a high stress on native land and marine species. Despite awareness of this trend, very few management practices have put in place to curb urban waste and emissions. These pollutants, in combination with climate change are negatively affecting biodiversity and ecosystem health in the archipelago.

One notable effect of anthropogenic activity is on marine life. Pollution is driving unnatural selection, in which genetically driven low susceptibility to pollutant is selectively preferred. Additionally, pollutants produce a decrease in genetic variability within a species, lowering species’ abilities to overcome environmental stressors such as disease, and increasing the probability of extinction[25]. Without further intervention, anthropogenic is likely to increase extinction rates within the Galápagos, and further damage the ecological community of the archipelago.

A location of dry forests in western Ecuador

Human Influences on Tropical Dry Forests

Historically, humans have played a very influential role in shaping the landscape and ecology of dry forests in southern Ecuador[26]. The destruction of these forests has been an on-going threat for at least three decades[27]. This has primarily been through settlement and agriculture, specifically for pasture and crop lands[26]. Within the last 60 years, the population of Ecuador has more than quadrupled, reaching a population of more than 17 million in 2019[27], which has resulted in greater demands on the ecosystem which has led to severe fragmentation and deforestation for timber and non-timber products[26]. These drivers have impacted the habitats of species and resulted in a reduction in the ranges of many species, increasing pressures on the forest ecosystems and biodiversity[26].

Through these anthropogenic mechanisms, dry tropical forests in Ecuador have undergone very small but costly climatic shifts[26]. For example, temperatures have changed by 0.1°C-0.2°C as has regular rates of precipitation[26]. These climatic changes coupled with land use change such as fragmentation impacts ecosystems and biodiversity[27].

Human Influences on Montane Cloud Forests

Throughout history, the cloud forest biome of Ecuador, located in the eastern region of the Andes mountains, has been impacted by changing human activities. For hundreds of years prior to European colonization, this area was populated by Indigenous peoples who had large influences on the surrounding ecosystem[28]. Archeological evidence suggests heavy land use and landscape transformation by the Indigenous peoples for the purposes of crop, likely corn (Zea mays) cultivation, which also involved local burning of the cloud forest[28]. However, following colonization of Ecuador by the Spanish, the local Indigenous peoples in the region were faced with depopulation as their population declined by 75% by the year 1600 due to the spread of disease, brutalization, and Indigenous conflicts with the Spanish colonizers[28]. Over the next 250 to 300 years the area of the could forest biome was largely unpopulated, and there is little evidence of human land use, during which the forest recovered and underwent the process of secondary succession[28]. In modern times, the Ecuadorian cloud forest biome faces the impacts of deforestation and forest fragmentation as caused by cattle farming and expansion of human populations into the area. [28]

Human Influence on Guayaquil Flooded Grasslands

Guayaquil, the most populated city in Ecuador, is significantly influenced by human activities, particularly through the discharge of untreated domestic and industrial wastewater into the Daule River. This river is a crucial water source for the city and is subject to pollution from various sources. The discharge of wastewater, coupled with poor management of solid waste and fuel spills, contributes to the river's contamination[29]. Despite the presence of potabilization/purification of water processes that are generally effective in reducing heavy metal concentrations in water, the water source in Guayaquil shows higher concentrations of metals like chromium, cadmium, and lead compared to Ibarra[29]. This difference is attributed to the industrial and household wastewater discharges received by the Daule River, which underscore the significant impact of human activities on Guayaquil's water quality[29].

Conservation

Parrot in western Ecuador

Bird Conservation in Western Ecuador

One type of conservation strategy is the implementation of private protected areas (PPA) and public protected areas (PA). These have been especially important in Western Ecuador which has experienced high levels of deforestation in humid and seasonally dry forests[30]. According to the IUCN red list of ecosystem criteria, these areas are classified as endangered[30]. Conserving these areas is important because of the high levels of endemism found in Ecuador[30].  

The Buenaventura Reserve is a private protected area that is located on the western side of the Andes and spans around 3000 hectares of land, and provides an ecosystem service such as bird watching[30]. Much of this land had previously been farmland for livestock but has since been transformed into efforts of reforestation[30]. The Buenaventura Reserve is managed by an NGO and is considered one of the best conserved forested areas in Western Ecuador as it successfully helps to protect bird and tree species that are threatened and/or endemic[30].

Even though public protected areas typically cover more land mass which enables the protection of more species, private protected areas have been found to play an important role in hosting large numbers of bird species[30]. Furthermore, private protected areas have been found to be essential in helping repair fragmented areas[30]. As of 2021, the Buenaventura Reserve has successfully been conserving wildlife and supporting the ecotourism industry, but important to keep in mind that many of these areas used to be farmland[30].  

Mangrove Conservation

Over time, the areas occupied by the valuable mangrove ecosystems of Ecuador have experienced considerable losses, up to 4.56% of all mangroves in the country[31]. Such losses are  mainly due to land use changes resulting from the expansion of shrimp farms and agriculture into these areas[31]. Therefore, as mangroves provide several ecosystem services, and have pivotal functions in supporting biodiversity and counteracting climate change, it is essential to undertake initiatives to support their restoration. To promote the conservation of mangrove forests, their deforestation became more controlled, and one key strategy utilized in Ecuador was the implementation of agreements dictating that protected areas containing mangroves are to be used in sustainable manners[31]. An example of agreements supporting the sustainable use and conservation of mangroves is Areas de Uso Sustentable y Custodia de Manglar (AUSCM), which functions in the southern province of El Oro[31]. Currently, the mangrove conservation efforts have seen limited success between 2010 and 2018, with slow recovery of mangrove forests[31]. It has been found that while the deforestation rate of mangroves has decreased over the last 20 years, deforestation still continues to occur within the remaining mangrove ecosystems, and agricultural and shrimp farming land use change persist as threats to mangrove conservation[31].

The Yasuní National Park Initiative

Yasuní National Park being one of the most significant conservation projects to protect diverse ecosystems and rich biodiversityin Ecuador[32]. The park, part of the Amazonian rainforest, is not only one of the most biodiverse places on Earth but also overlaps with the territories of indigenous communities like the Huaorani[32]. The conservation project in Yasuní is crucial due to its unique biodiversity, including numerous endemic species, and its role in carbon storage, which is vital in the fight against climate change[32]. The rationale for protecting Yasuní lies in preserving this irreplaceable natural heritage, supporting indigenous lifestyles, and contributing to global ecological stability[32].

Napo Wildlife Center, an ecotourism lodge in Yasuní National Park

The strategies for conserving Yasuní revolve in multiple ways[32]. Firstly, the legal protection of the park restricts activities like logging, mining, and oil extraction[32]. Secondly, there's an emphasis on sustainable tourism, which provides economic benefits while ensuring minimal ecological impact[32]. Collaborations with indigenous communities are key to integrating traditional knowledge into conservation practices[32]. Additionally, research and monitoring are crucial for understanding and mitigating threats like deforestation and climate change[32]. International partnerships and funding play a vital role in supporting these strategies, with initiatives like the Yasuní-ITT Trust Fund launched to encourage global investment in the park's conservation[32].

The success of the Yasuní conservation initiative can be seen in both conservation and social outcomes[32]. Ecologically, the park continues to be a haven for countless species and acts as a critical carbon sink[32]. Efforts to curb illegal activities have seen varying degrees of success, with ongoing challenges due to the lucrative nature of oil and logging industries[32]. On the social front, the project has had mixed impacts. While it has brought international attention and funds, tensions over land rights and economic development persist[32]. Indigenous communities have benefitted from increased autonomy and support, but conflicts over resource use and external pressures continue to pose challenges.

Conservation of Galápagos Native Vegetation Through Non-Native Species

The Galápagos island’s ecosystem has seen a shift from historically dominating herbaceous desert xeric scrub to a new domination of woody plants. This increase has resulted in biodiversity loss, reduced plant productivity, and soil erosion[33]. In an effort to restore the archipelago to its former biome, a conservation experimentation was begun in 2010, in which a non-native giant tortoise species was introduced to one island, and vegetation proportions were monitored and modeled going forward 50 years. This project utilized 39 adult saddle backed and domed giant tortoises. They were sterilized to prevent invasion if the project went poorly, and introduced to Pinta Island, a small northern island in the archipelago[34]. Pinta Island has a human population of 0, but the Pinta Giant Tortoise has become extinct in the wake of fishermen slaughtering tortoises throughout the 1900s[34]. Goats were introduced to the island in 1959, and their subsequent population boom led to further ecological degradation through increased herbivory on herbaceous scrub plants. This introduction of non-native giant tortoises in May of 2010 sought to understand if an ecological replacement species could restore an ecosystem that had suffered the loss of a native herbivore (Pinta Tortoises), and the introduction of an invasive herbivory species (goats)[33].

Observations of tortoises and vegetation levels found that vegetation density reductions of woody plants were produced when the population exceeded a density threshold of .7 tortoises per .7 Hectare. On a 60 square kilometer island, this means that approximately 2,000 tortoises would need to be introduced or born[33]. Although not all replacement species are suitable for filling an extinct species niche, this conservation project has proven that ecological replacement of giant tortoises a possible aid in the restoration of the Galápagos biome affected by anthropogenic activities.

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

  1. ↑ "Ecuador". World Bank. 2022. Retrieved Dec 7, 2023.
  2. ↑ Celi, Jorge Emilio; Villamarin, Francisco (2020). "Freshwater ecosystems of Mainland Ecuador: diversity, issues and perspectives". Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia. 32.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Cuesta, Francisco; Peralvo, Manuel; Merino-Viteri, Andres; Bustamante, Macarena; Baquero, Francis; Friele, Juan F; Muriel, Priscilla; Torres-Carvajal, Omar (2017). "Priority areas for biodiversity conservation in mainland Ecuador". Neotropical Biodiversity. 3: 93–106 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Kleemann, J; Koo, H; et al. (2022). "Priorities of action and research for the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services in continental Ecuador". Biological Conservation. 265 – via Elsevier.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 "Current Climate > Climatology". The World Bank Group. 2021. Retrieved Dec 8. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Rivas, Carlos A.; Cuerrero-Casado, Jose; Navarro-Cerillo, Rafael M. (11 July 2021). "Deforestation and fragmentation trends of seasonal dry tropical forest in Ecuador: impact on conservation". Forest Ecosystems. 8: 1–13.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Giri, C; Ochieng, E; Tieszen, L.L.; Singh, A; Loveland, T; Masek, J; Duke, N (August 2010). "Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data". Wiley Online Library. 20: 154–159 – via Wiley Online Library.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Moity, Nicolas; Delgado, Byron; Salinas-de-Leon, Pelayo (Jan 2019). [10.1371/journal.pone.0209313 "Mangroves in the Galapagos islands: Distribution and dynamics"] Check |url= value (help). Pub Med. 14 – via Pub Med.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Morocho, Ramiro; Gonzalez, Ivonne; Osorio Ferreira, Tiago; Xose Luis, Otero (2022). [10.3390/f13050656 "Mangrove Forests in Ecuador: A Two-Decade Analysis"] Check |url= value (help). Forests. 13.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Wilson, Sarah Jane; Rhemtulla, Jeanine M. (2018). "Small montane cloud forest fragments are important for conserving tree diversity in the Ecuadorian Andes". Biotropica. 50 (4): 586–597. doi:10.1111/btp.12542. line feed character in |title= at position 88 (help)
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Mariscal, Ana; Thomas, Daniel Churchill; Haffenden, Austin; Manobanda, Rocío; Defas, William; Chinchero, Miguel Angel; Larco, Jose Danilo Simba; Jaramillo, Edison; Roy, Bitty A.; Peck, Mika (2022). "Evidence for Alternate Stable States in an Ecuadorian Andean Cloud Forest". Forests. 13 (6): 875. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/f13060875 .
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Schipper, Jan. "Galápagos Islands Xeric Scrub".
  13. ↑ Harris, Donna B.; et al. (February 2007). "Population Ecology of the Endemic Rodent Nesoryzomys swarthi in the Tropical Desert of the Galápagos Islands". Journal of mammalogy. 88: 208–219 – via Oxford Academic. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)
  14. ↑ "Climate of Ecuador". Language Crossing. Retrieved 2023/11/14. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  15. ↑ "Ecuador: Cultural Landscape". Latin America & Caribbean Geographic. 06/03/2023. Retrieved 2023/11/20. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  16. ↑ Omondi, Sharon (December 27 2019). "10 Wild Animals Found In Ecuador". WorldAtlas. Retrieved 2023/11/15. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  17. ↑ "Ecuador Shows What Freshwater Ecosystem Protection Looks Like". The nature conservancy. August 11, 2023. Retrieved 2023/11/20. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Arteaga, Alejandro; Pyron, Alexander R.; Peñafiel, Nicolás; Romero-Barreto, Paulina; Culebras, Jaime; Bustamante, Lucas; Yánez-Muñoz, Mario H.; Guayasamin, Juan M. (April 2016). "Comparative Phylogeography Reveals Cryptic Diversity and Repeated Patterns of Cladogenesis for Amphibians and Reptiles in Northwestern Ecuador". Plos One. 11. line feed character in |title= at position 43 (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Leimbeck, Ralf M; Valenica, Renato; Balslev, Henrik (Aug 2004). "Landscape diversity patterns and endemism of Araceae in Ecuador". Biodiversity & Conservation. 13: 1755–1779 – via ProQuest.
  20. ↑ Esquerre, Damien; Brennan, Ian G.; Catullo, Renee A.; Torres-Perez, Fernando; Keogh, J. Scott (Feb 2019). "How mountains shape biodiversity: The role of the Andes in biogeography, diversification, and reproductive biology in South America's most species-rich lizard radiation (Squamata: Liolaemidae)". Evolution. 73: 214–230 – via JSTOR.
  21. ↑ Young, Kenneth R.; Ulloa, Carmen Ulloa; Luteyn, James L.; Knapp, Sandra (January 2002). "Plant evolution and endemism in Andean South America: An introduction". The Botanical Review. 68: 4–21 – via Springer Link.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 Galapagos National Park Authority. "Biodiversity". Galapagos Conservancy.
  23. ↑ Werner, R.,  Hoernle, K.,  Barkckhausen, U., and  Hauff, F. (2003),  Geodynamic evolution of the Galápagos hot spot system (Central East Pacific) over the past 20 m.y.: Constraints from morphology, geochemistry, and magnetic anomalies, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst.,  4, 1108, doi:10.1029/2003GC000576, 12.
  24. ↑ Steinfartz, S. (2011). When Hotspots Meet: The Galápagos Islands: A Hotspot of Species Endemism Based on a Volcanic Hotspot Centre. In: Zachos, F., Habel, J. (eds) Biodiversity Hotspots. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20992-5_23
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Alava, J.J., McMullen, K., Jones, J., Barragán-Paladines, M.J., Hobbs, C., Tirapé, A., Calle, P., Alarcón, D., Muñoz-Pérez, J.P., Muñoz-Abril, L., Townsend, K.A., Denkinger, J., Uyaguari, M., Domínguez, G.A., Espinoza, E., Reyes, H., Piedrahita, P., Fair, P., Galloway, T., Grove, J.S., Lewis, C. and Schofield, J. (2023), Multiple anthropogenic stressors in the Galápagos Islands' complex social–ecological system: Interactions of marine pollution, fishing pressure, and climate change with management recommendations. Integr Environ Assess Manag, 19: 870-895. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4661
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 Manchego, Carlos E; Hildebrandt, Patrick; Cueva, Jorge; Espinsoa, Carlos Ivan; Stimm, Bernd; Gunter, Sven (Dec 2017). "Climate change versus deforestation: Implications for tree species distribution in the dry forests of southern Ecuador". Plos One. 12 – via PubMed.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Rivas, Carlos A; Guerrero-Casado, Jose; Navarro-Carillo, Rafael M (2021). "Deforestation and fragmentation trends of seasonal dry tropical forest in Ecuador: impact on conservation". For. Ecosyst. 8 – via Springer Open.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 Loughlin, Nicholas J.D.; Gosling, William D.; Mothes, Patricia; Montoya, Encarni (August 2018). "Ecological consequences of post-Columbian indigenous depopulation in the Andean–Amazonian corridor". Nature ecology & evolution. 2: 1233–1236. line feed character in |title= at position 42 (help)
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Isabel, Cipriani; Jon, Molinero; Eliza, Jara-Negrete; Miren, Barrado; César, Arcos (Dec 2020). "Heavy metal assessment in drinking waters of Ecuador: Quito, Ibarra and Guayaquil". Journal of Water and Health. 18: 1050–1064. doi:DOI:10.2166/wh.2020.093 Check |doi= value (help).
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 30.7 30.8 Guerrero-Casado, Jose; Seoane, Jose Manuel; Aguirre, Nikolay; Torres-Porras, Jeronimo (2021). "Success in conserving the bird diversity in tropical forests through private protected areas in Western Ecuador". Neotropical Biology and Conservation. 16 (2): 351–367 – via ProQuest.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 Morocho, Ramiro; González, Ivonne; Ferreira, Tiago Osorio; Otero, Xosé Luis (2022). "Mangrove forests in Ecuador: A two-decade analysis". Forests. 13 (5): 656. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/f13050656 Check |doi= value (help).
  32. ↑ 32.00 32.01 32.02 32.03 32.04 32.05 32.06 32.07 32.08 32.09 32.10 32.11 32.12 32.13 Mestanza-Ramón, Carlos; Monar-Nuñez, Joel; Guala-Alulema, Paola; Montenegro-Zambrano, Yuri; Herrera-Chávez, Renato (2023). "A Review to Update the Protected Areas in Ecuador and an Analysis of Their Main Impacts and Conservation Strategies". Environments. 10: 79. doi:10050079 Check |doi= value (help).
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Hunter, Elizabeth & Gibbs, James. (2013). Densities of Ecological Replacement Herbivores Required to Restore Plant Communities: A Case Study of Giant Tortoises on Pinta Island, Galápagos. Restoration Ecology. 22. 10.1111/rec.12055.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Galápagos Conservancy. "Pinta Island". Galápagos Conservancy.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.[1]

  1. ↑ En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].


Seekiefer (Pinus halepensis) 9months-fromtop.jpg
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