Course:GEOS303/2022/Cambodia

From UBC Wiki

Introduction

A Panorama shot of the west coast of Koh Rong Sanloem taken from the lighthouse in the south of the island.

Cambodia is a tropical country located in Southeast Asia's mainland region, bordering Vietnam, Thailand, Laos and the Gulf of Thailand. Situated between latitudes 10° and 15° North and longitude 102° and 108° East, Cambodia is thus considered to be a part of the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula.[1] Although deemed a relatively small country compared to its neighbours, over half of Cambodia is occupied by tropical forests, with the landscape of its Cardamoms being one of the most diverse lowland deciduous forests in Southeast Asia.[2] However, this is a fact unknown to many as Cambodia's tropicality is often difficult to observe and research.

Biogeography

A geographic map of Cambodia

Biomes and Ecoregions

Terrestrial Biomes

The different biomes in Asia. Cambodia's biomes consists of Moist Broadleaf Forests, Dry Broadleaf Forests and Mangroves. Please click on the image to see the map in a higher quality.

The major terrestrial biomes of Cambodia include tropical moist broadleaf and tropical dry broadleaf forests.[3][4] Mangrove forests are also considered a prominent ecoregion of Cambodia, although they’re often categorized as aquatic coastal wetland ecosystems.[5] The Cardamom Mountain ecoregion consists of primarily tropical moist broadleaf forests, while the Central Indochina dry forest ecoregion makes up most of Cambodia’s tropical dry broadleaf forest. [6][7] Additional ecoregions of Cambodia include the South-eastern Indochina Dry Evergreen Forests, the Tonle Sap-Mekong Peat Swamp Forest, and the Tonle Sap Freshwater Swamp Forests, although there is, again, overlap with aquatic ecoregions. [6][7]

Aquatic Biomes

Aquatic regions encompass a wide range of marine and freshwater biomes. Marine biomes include oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries (coastal regions where saltwater and freshwater meet)[5]. The coast of Cambodia borders the Gulf of Thailand, an inlet of the South China Sea. Several of Thailand’s rivers feed into the gulf, significantly lowering the salinity of the water from that of the South China Sea[8]. The gulf provides Cambodia's coast with estuaries, allowing other fresh and saltwater biomes to thrive. Additional marine biomes include coral reefs and seagrass beds, both essential in maintaining Cambodia’s coastal biodiversity. Coral reef biomes span Koh Rong Archipelago, which faces a rapid increase in tourism, though it has been designated as a Marine Protected Area since 2016[9]. While the reefs remain healthy, pollution and waste are a growing concern on islands where tourism is more popular. The Koh Rong Archipelago and the Kampot and Kep provinces also contain seagrass meadows. These meadows are crucial for maintaining functional biotic interactions—Seagrass meadows connect coral reef and mangrove habitats, allowing species to migrate between the two[10]. Seagrass beds also provide the sea floor with structural complexity and are a significant food source for critical species such as sea turtles and dugongs. Seagrass beds oxygenate the water through photosynthesis. This process increases carbon capture and nutrient cycling - both essential functions for the ecosystem. Freshwater biomes include wetlands, flowing water (rivers and streams), and standing bodies of water (lakes and ponds). Cambodia’s Indochina Mangroves forests are an example of a freshwater wetland biome. Mangrove ecoregions provide high levels of biodiversity but are continuously threatened and increasingly converted to infrastructure[11]. The Mekong River and Tonlé Sap Lake also provide critical freshwater biomes, giving rise to Tonle Sap-Mekong Peat Swamp Forests and Tonle Sap Freshwater Swamp Forests.

Biophysical Features

The Krâvanh (Cardamom) Mountains as seen from Khao Khitchakut National Park in Thailand.

Mountains and Plains

Cambodia is composed of many contrasting geological features. Topographically, Cambodia has two distinct regions, the central low lying or central plains, which includes the flat coast areas, and the highlands, which features mountainous ranges and plateaus.[1] The highlands surrounding the central plains, which spans to encompass about three quarters of the country’s total land area, consists of densely forested mountains, such as the Cardamom and Elephant Mountains.[1] The Cardamom Mountains contains the highest peak in Cambodia, Phnom Aural, with an elevation of 1813 m (5948 ft). At this height, this region of the Cardamom Mountains receive the highest amount of annual rainfall, which contributes to the formation of a niche ecosystem that houses many rare frog, turtle and snake species.[12] The Dangrek Mountains forms a natural barrier between northern Cambodia and southern Thailand while the Ratanak Kiri plateau and Chlong highlands are situated in eastern Cambodia and western Vietnam.[1]

The Dâmrei (Elephant) Mountains as seen from the Praek Tuek Chhu river near Kampot, Cambodia.

Marine and Coastal Areas

Southwestern Cambodia is boarded by the Gulf of Thailand, an approximately 435km coastline that features estuaries, bays, and 64 islands composed of assorted dimensions.[1] The coastal region features mangrove forests, which are stands of emergent plants in highly sedimented regions in the eulittoral zone that are important for marine ecosystem functions. The mangrove forests span across four provinces: Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, Kampot and Kep, providing ecosystem services like hosting coral reef and seagrass to provide habitats for fish to breed and nurse.[13]

The Tonle Sap Lake
The mangrove forest on the edge of Tonle Sap Lake, Kampong Phlouk village, Cambodia

The river and stream networks in Cambodia are very intricate. The Tonle Sap Lake is the largest natural lake in Cambodia, boarded by the Dongrak Range in the north and the Cardamom and Elephant ranges in the southwest; connecting to the 120km long Mekong River in its southern part and to the Tonle Sap River, which acts as an inlet and outlet for water fluxes throughout the differing seasons.[14] Depending on the season, the wetter months can see the Tonle Sap Lake covering up to 1.3 million hectares, whereas the dry season sees it reduced to around 1 million hectares.[15] The Tonle Sap Lake hydrological cycle can be categorized into four phases. Between July and early September, the rising season features a strong influx of water starting from the upper Mekong River, traveling through the Tonle Sap River, then into the lake.[15] The wet season then commences, lasting until the end of October, in which the nearby 1.25 million hectares of forests, shrublands, grasslands and agricultural lands are flooded.[15] Then, the receding season begins, as the reversal of the Tonle Sap River flowing from the Tonle Sap Lake and into the southern region of the China Sea results in a lower water level at the lake; this process occurs until around February.[15] Finally, the dry season lasts from April to May, in which the water level at the Tonle Sap Lake is at its lowest.[15]

A map depicting the levels of rainfall in different regions in Cambodia. Please note the slight differences in numbers on this figure compared to the written information presented in the text. The discrepancy may be due to where the measurements were taken as well as the fact that the research from both sources (the figure and the document cited in the Wiki) were conducted during different years.

Climate

Cambodia’s climate is dictated by tropical monsoons, distinguishing two seasons: a dry season (November to April) and a rainy season (May to November).[16] During the monsoon (wet) season, precipitation typically ranges from 1200 mm to 2000 mm annually.[16] Depending on the region, some areas - such as the Tonle Sap Basin-Lower Mekong Valley - will receive about 1200-1900 mm of annual precipitation, while the coastal western lowlands will receive a heavy concentration of over 3000 mm of rainfall annually.[16] Furthermore, certain highlands and coastal zones may receive up to 4000 mm of rainfall, as south-westerly monsoons spawned from the Gulf of Thailand travel onshore through the country.[12] These huge downpours of rain are necessary to flood the Mekong region, enriching the plains for rice cultivation.

Cambodia’s temperature ranges between 22°C to 38°C, with an average annual temperature of around 27°C.[16] April is typically the hottest month and January the coldest. During the rainy season, gusty winds and high humidity permeate the atmosphere, while the dry season facilitates a drier wind and lower humidity.[16] Infrequent precipitation and varying degrees of cloudiness are also associated with the dry season.[16]

Diversity

The Cardamom Mountains rainforests, south west Cambodia.

The Cardamom Range

In Southwest Cambodia near the border with Thailand lies the tropical moist broadleaf rainforests of the Cardamom mountains, stretching approximately 10,000 km2.[17] Although only a small area of Cambodia’s terrestrial landscape, this mountain range harbours almost two thirds of the country’s biodiversity value; for example, over fifty percent of Cambodia’s amphibian and bird species are represented across the Cardamom’s forests.[18] Alongside this, its relatively undisturbed status compared to that of other Southeast Asian tropical forests has allowed for Cambodia to maintain an outstanding level of species diversity, both in terms of fauna and flora.

The Siamese Crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis), the flagship species of the Cardamom mountains.

Besides possessing common flagship species which reside across many forests of Southeast Asia – including the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), the Malayan Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus), and the Siamese Crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) – the Cardamom also occupies substantial levels of species rarity and endemism.[19] Historically, the Cardamom has long been isolated from other tropical forests across Asia and this isolation and remoteness, alongside the mountainous topography of the Cardamom’s forests, have worked to provide this region with a significantly high degree of endemicity. Alongside this, the region occupies harsh microclimatic conditions (a key aspect of mountainous forests) which has constructed a key barrier to species dispersal and provides many opportunities for niche exploitation at high altitudes. Over evolutionary timescales, these factors have driven the production of a wide range endemic species in the tropical rainforest, including the notorious Chestnut-headed partridge (Arborophila cambodiana). Therefore, Cambodia’s exceptional level of faunal diversity and endemism can largely be owed to the forests of the Cardamom Mountain range.[17] The long-standing underappreciation of the Cardamom as a repository for endemic and undiscovered species has resulted in a paucity of research concerning its species diversity. Thus, it has been reasoned that the region's endemicity and species diversity is likely higher than what is currently known.

Prey Lang

Alongside the Cardamom Range, there also exists the Prey Lang's tropical forests, positioned across the central plains of Cambodia. Although it doesn’t possess a level of species diversity as high as the Cardamom, these forests reaches 500,000 ha, and there is substantial support for the region to be the last remaining evergreen forest of the Indochina region.[20] Whilst Prey Lang represents almost 45% of all known bird species of Cambodia, the region is also incredibly valued for its floristic diversity. As of 2015, research demonstrates that Prey Lang supports eight types of forest (notably the evergreen forest and mixed deciduous forest) and over 530 species of known flora, including 198 tree species, 69 liana species, and 37 shrub species. However, like the forests of the Cardamom, it is suggested that there are many floral species that remain undiscovered, and thus this number is said to be much higher than what is currently known.[21]

The Tonle Sap and Mekong River

A Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) in Phang Nga, Thailand. Although this specimen was not pictured in Cambodia, the uneven mammalian distribution pattern is evident here. As the niche areas in which this species thrives in are shaped by the evolving characteristics of marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

The deltas and lowlands of Cambodia have been used and modified by humans for millennia; activities such as agriculture and farming are quite harsh on the lands, influencing the distribution of amphibian and reptile species.[22] Since amphibians and reptiles have broad ecological tolerances, which enables them to adapt and thrive in human-modified habitats, a widespread of species occupy this region in various niches.[22] Therefore, the Tonle Sap Basin would be favoured by species that have low-maintenance feeding requirements and are resistant to the ever-changing human activities that occur there.[22]However, studies of mammalian distribution patterns show the opposite effect. The Mekong River acts as a geographic barrier to mammalian dispersal, which is evident in primate habitat ranges[22]. The habitat range for primates is quite small and specific to meet their needs; three species of primates, the Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang), Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and Silvered Langur (Semnopithicus cristatus) are confirmed to habit the swampy forests around the Tonle Sap Lake.[14][22]

Over the past 7 million years, the Mekong River has undergone numerous course changes and transformations.[22] While the Mekong River is a vital water system in Cambodia, it also runs through China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. This indicates that the shifts and captures of this river network and its impact on limiting the divergence of genetic and faunal composition can be observed in all these countries as well.The makeup of the vegetation of the Tonle Sap floodplain consists of shrublands with stunted trees and herbaceous vegetation dominated by grasses. Due to a long history of human interference via disturbances in the Tonle Sap floodplain for agricultural purposes, the vegetation is mostly secondary compared to the once closed canopy comprised of small to medium-sized trees to seasonally inundated or floating vegetation.[14] This environment appears as a mosaic of swamp-like shrubbery, as 200 higher plant species exist in various forms, from florals to vines to woody climbers.[14] Most trees at the Tonle Sap are deciduous, and the leaves are typically shed underwater during the flooding season.[14] Noticeably, the flooding period is characterized by trees bearing fruits and seeds and new leaves being to grow and flower as the water recedes. As the vegetation is uneven, patchy and swampy, the shallow shorelines have evolved to be a rich ecosystem that can thus host dense 1-3 m tall, grassy vegetation, such as para grass (Brachiaria mutica), red sprangletop (Leptochloa chinensis) and cupscale grass (Sacciolepis).[14] This mixture of grasses, sedges and reeds are excellent structures to house aquatic invertebrates, such as copepods, cladocerans and rotifers, which are preyed upon by numerous species of fish. The Tonle Sap Lake is home to 149 species of fish from 35 families; the majority of fish belong to the Cyprinidae family.[14] Many white fish species would feast during the flooding of the plains, then travel along the Mekong River, seeking shelter in deep pools or canyons during the dry season in the region between Komong Cham and Siphandone.[14]

Human influences

Map of historical Khmer Empire

Khmer Empire/ Angkorian Empire- Changing Landscapes and Habitats

Angkor was the capital of Khmer Empire, and yet we can still see legacies of Khmer Empire through its geographic landscapes and infrastructures. The Khmer Empire eventually went into collapse due to years of war with other kingdoms, but the fundamental reason for this ancient civilization's demise was the slow depletion of its soil, water, and forest resources[23]. The desire to boost agricultural productivity at the expense of the fragile ecology of the region may have contributed to the Empire's expansion of its borders across the majority of Southeast Asia under a variety of different emperors[23].

Many of the Angkorean temples were being built while the expansion programme moved forward, and enormous irrigation projects significantly changed the landscape to create room for infrastructure and agricultural systems to support more than two million Khmers[24].

The woods, stones, and metals used to construct these constructions were procured from nearby quarries and jungles[25].  In addition to the destruction of forests for farming, historians noted that wood was utilized to build homes, temples, cooking utensils, and even the scaffolding for larger projects.  This dramatic change in the environment demonstrated the strong connection between human development and the usage of natural resources available to them[25].

The relationship between soil fertility and irrigation systems is a subject that many archaeologists and historians studied. The health of the farmlands and the quality of the agricultural goods may have been significantly impacted by failures in the canals[23]. In particular, the Angkor is noted for its climate yearly cycle of 6 months of drought followed by six months of rain. Theories provided by studies suspect that the Angkoreans built a kind of "hydraulic city" made up of canals and reservoirs that allowed them to grow rice several times a year, creating excess crops and supplying enough food for the workers and artisans constructing the temples[23].

Phnom Penh and Colonial Impact- French protectorate in 1864

The foundations of a compact city with a denser and more rectilinear structure emerged during the next decades until the years in-between the World Wars. Main canal, and river port site were created by strengthening the river banks to secure the waterfront, while land acquisition gradually created a flat, artificial platform that served as the foundation for a tropical French town[26]. More building sites were made available by "polderization," the total drainage of fields with square shapes, which was not previously used in the Khmer building history[26]. The paved surfaces that the colonial power had begun to build could not absorb heavy rains like this soil could, because it was porous enough to do so. By constructing U-shaped canal, the French colonial administration planned and carried out hydraulic modernization beginning in the middle of the 1880s[26].

Human Influence on Fire in Cambodia

Human related fire history can be traced back to past 9300 years. Through statistics and interviews, there are two types of wild fires in Northern Cambodia. One being regular ground layer fire in forest and savanna[27]. The dry season lightening is likely to cause wildfire. The second being irregular fire that origin due to clearing forest for cultivation. These irregular fire may ocular multiple times in a short timeframe in areas where the soil is capable of supporting forest. Human act as a control of fire[27]. There are conventional justification for policies of fire suppression in tropical forests, this long-term perspective on the contribution of indigenous land-use customs to landscape evolution should be taken into consideration in forest management and biological conservation[27].


Threats

Introduction

Cambodia's environmental threats include deforestation, pollution and climate change.[28] These changes to the environment are a threat to biodiversity in terms of habitat change, diversity loss, and water contamination.

Contributors of Threats

Cambodia Protected Area and Economic Land Concessions

Cambodia’s economic transformation and environmental degradation is contributed by capitalist interests by the Greater Mekong Subregion Initiative, investment from China, and other interested private companies.[28]

An  unprecedented  recent  study  of  global  deforestation  rates  showed that  Cambodia  had  the  third  highest  national  deforestation  rate  in  the world,  with  forest  cover  loss  of  over  7  per  cent  in  the  decade  2002  to 2012 .[28]

Deforestation

This immense deforestation is partly caused by The Cambodian government.[28] In the interest of money and growth, the government issues long-term leases called Economic Land Concessions to private companies.[28] A graph can be found on the right that shows how the land is divided between Protected, Concession, and unlabelled.

Another cause of deforestation are illegal logging activities in areas blocked off for conservation.[28] Additionally, formal logging concessions ended in 2001 and the legal loggings can only happen upon applying for special permits.[28]

Pollution

Pollution caused by industries penetrates into the soils and waters of Cambodia. These industries include agriculture, livestock, and mining.[28] Pollution can take place in farming because the use of agricultural chemicals that can leech into the water and mining is causing Heavy Metals (metals with toxic properties), such as Mercury and Arsenic, to impact the waters as well.

Mercury

Mercury can usually be found at high levels in Tuna at an international point of view. In Cambodia, mining gold has caused it to release into the Sean and Mekong rivers. This is especially concerning considering the “heavy exploitation of Cambodia’s fisheries, particularly on Tonle Sap Lake".[28] Those that use the water source or eat the fishes that carries heavy metals can have a detrimental impact to them overtime. Not only could this impact humans but also the animals and plants that are supported by Tonle Sap Lake.

Arsenic

Arsenic, which is also a toxic Heavy Metal can be found organically in Cambodia at different concentrations and “reflects the boundary of recent Holocene sediment deposits”.[29] It is important to know the concentration as its occurrence can impact the environment, organisms, and humans. “Elevated arsenic levels are sharply restricted to the Bassac and Mekong River banks and the alluvium braided by these rivers (Kandal Province)”.[29] Cambodia, as well as many other countries bound the Mekong River. Cambodia specially contains the start of the Mekong floodplain in which starts the initially breakdown of different sediments before moving further away from the floodplain. According to Bushchmann et al, the increasing Arsenic levels are  “triggered by microbially induced reductive dissolution of As-coated iron oxides and MnO2 surfaces “.[29]

Human Threats to Reptile Populations

Enhydris enhydris, Rainbow water snake

Cambodia, and the entire Indochina region in general, is very species rich in reptiles, specifically in upland forest ecosystems.[22] However, the alluvial plains and the Tonle Sap Basin, areas that feature marine biome qualities, is home to five confirmed species of turtle.[14] Unfortunately, due to human trading networks, many of these turtles are under great threat, as they are a highly touted resource in China.[14] Due to the pressure exerted onto the turtle species in the Tonle Sap region, this has led to the extinction of the Mangrove Terrapin (Batagur baska).[14] While they were once present in the Tonle Sap around the early 1900s, as reported by elderly locals who reside there, the uncovered turtle shells (found in 1985 by fishermen) can be found in the Siem Reap Department of Fisheries Office.[14] Furthermore, the commodification of other reptiles, such as watersnakes, are very popular for consumption by humans; During the 1999-2000 wet season, about 8500 Rainbow (Enhydris enhydris), Tonle Sap (Enhydris longicauda), Bocourt’s (Enhydris bocourti), Striped (Enhydris jagorii) and Plumbeous (Enhydris plumbea) watersnakes were harvested and sold per day.[14] Sustainable harvesting of these watersnakes is still being researched, as their ecological role in this ecosystem is not well known. It is a nuanced topic to study, as data and observations are collected via inquiring about catching and trading practices.[14] Therefore, researchers are still developing ethical methods to study the impacts reptiles have on the Tonle Sap region, specifically how humans have shaped this space to fulfill the ends to their own means.

Conservation

An aerial view of the Prey Lang Forest

The Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary

The Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary, a conservation project under Conservation International, an American non-profit environmental organization, is dedicated to understanding the ecological values, such as biodiversity, wildlife and watershed protection in Cambodia’s largest lowland evergreen forest.[30] The Prey Lang Forest is home to 250 000 people who rely on this region for subsistence as well as their livelihood. Since 2005, the Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary has conducted numerous studies to properly define boundaries, working with various levels of government across the four provinces the forest spans: Kampong Thom, Preah Vihear, Kratie and Stung Treng.[30] As of 2016, the Prey Lang Forest has been fully established as a protected area, dedicated to biodiversity conservation, improving forest management practices, and sustainably financing this region.[30]

Furthermore, the Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary is working with the Ibis Rice program to ensure farmers receive a premium price for their products that are farmed sustainably within these region.[30] However, it is unclear as to how effective this mission is and whether there are acute policies in place to uphold this project. Another strategy employed by Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary is their collaboration with the Cambodian Ministry of Environment and the Japanese company Mitsui and Co. to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[30] To do so, the Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary plan to sell carbon credits to help large corporations reduce their carbon footprints; the profits from these sales would be allocated to long-term forest protection.[30] Unfortunately, statistics are unavailable and no concrete guidelines are published to review the effectiveness of this conservation strategy.

While the Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary are claiming to make strides towards better forest management practices, the highlighted issue of illegal logging is still an ongoing issue that has not been properly addressed. Many timber species, such as rosewood, are logged illegally, causing distress on other species that depend on these trees for shelter. Between 2000-2019, 100 000 hectares of forest has been lost, with much of the land converted to rubber plantations.[31]

Marine Conservation Cambodia

Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), one of the endangered marine mammal species targeted in the Cambodian Marine Mammal Conservation Project (CMMCP)

Marine Conservation Cambodia (MCC)

Marine Conservation Cambodia (MCC) is a non-profit, volunteer-based, conservation organization, located in Kep provinces of Cambodia[10]. The MCC carries out a number of projects but was founded with the mission of supporting sustainable fishing practices. In April 2018, the MCC founded the first Marine Fisheries Management Area (MFMA) in Cambodia. The MFMA was created to protect endangered flagship species of Cambodia’s marine and coastal habitats, as well as support sustainable fishing. The MFMA additionally protects, key biomes, such as seagrass beds and coral reefs. Threats to these key biomes severely impact the local marine coastal wildlife, leading to the MCC’s establishment of several additional projects.

Cambodian Marine Mammal Conservation Project (CMMCP)

In 2017, MCC created the Cambodian Marine Mammal Conservation Project (CMMCP) to protect Cambodia’s endangered Irrawaddy dolphin and dugong populations[10]. Cambodia’s dugong populations experience substantial threats due to seagrass habitat degradation and hunting. Seagrass habitat loss derives from coastal development and pollution, while hunting persists in pursuit of fine goods, such as leather and traditional medicine. Despite their ubiquitous presence throughout Southeast Asia and ability to thrive in marine, brackish, and freshwater ecosystems, Irrawaddy dolphins, are classified as an endangered species due to increasing population fragmentation. While Cambodia's fisheries law already protects these species, the lack of scientific research on Irrawaddy dolphin and dugong populations generates little improvement for the state of the marine mammals. For this reason, the CMMCP prioritizes research and data collection on the habitat, threats, distribution, and abundance of Irrawaddy dolphin and dugong populations. New technology, such as specialized binoculars, allows the research team to identify species and record behavioural traits, population dynamics, habitats, and conflict areas[32]. All data collected is compiled in a research archive and shared with local and national lawmakers. The team additionally plans to produce a video including research footage to gain public awareness regarding the concern these species face in Cambodia.

Spotted seahorse (Hippocampus kuda), one of the six seahorse species identified in the studies areas of the MCC's Seahorse Project

The Seahorse Project

Cambodia’s coastal waters contain more than six species of seahorse. These populations are crucial in maintaining a balanced ecosystem, providing food for larger fish, and feeding upon small invertebrates and crustaceans[10]. Depending on size, these organisms can live between 1-5 years, often residing in critical aquatic ecosystems such as seagrass beds, mangroves, and coral reefs. These habitats are essential to seahorse populations since they are not free-swimming fish and require substrate such as corals to attach. For this reason, seahorse population habitat ranges are often relatively small, leaving them particularly sensitive to habitat destruction. Using records dating to 2006, the MCC predict local extinction in one seahorse species and note a significant decrease in the remaining populations[10]. Population decrease derives from the degradation of seahorse habitats and exploitation through human fishing practices. Coastal development and land reclamation destroy seagrass beds, mangroves, and coral reefs, causing population loss and fragmentation. In Cambodia, both direct catch and bycatch play a role in population depletion. Seahorses are a valuable product of international trade due to their rich history in traditional medicines and their popularity as aquarium pets. Unsustainable fishing practice often destroys seahorse habitat while catching seahorses in the process. The Seahorse Project aims to tackle these drivers through six approaches[10].

  1. Community-patrolled areas: Includes active collaboration between the local community, authority figures, and the fishing administration to manage and protect vulnerable seahorse habitats.
  2. Active patrols: Implements law enforcement to patrol the islands of Koh Rong, Koh Rong Samloem and Kep to prohibit illegal fishing practices.
  3. Fishery management protocols: Utilizes management programs to engage community awareness of the dangers of fisheries.
  4. Education and training: Educates the local fishing community and provides training on fishing practices to reduce by-catch rates.
  5. Habitat restoration: Restores degraded seagrass beds and secures key habitats from human exploitation.
  6. Economic Alternatives: Provides alternative lifestyle choices to improve sustainability practice.

Conservation of the Asian Elephant in the Cardamom Rainforests

The Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus), previously one of the most endangered species in Cambodia. However, thanks to conservation efforts through the protection of land and community engagement, the species' status has managed to bounce back.

At present, approximately 400-600 wild Asian elephants live and travel across Cambodia’s landscape, the majority of which are concentrated within the tropical forests of the Cardamom mountain range. This quantity is substantially less than the population of the species two decades ago which was estimated at approximately 2,000.[33] Thus, its current status has rendered it critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, a globally-known indicator for assessing the health and status of the world’s biodiversity. The most significant driver contributing to the species’ endangerment is poaching, a subsection of the illegal wildlife trade which has a perilous impact on the country’s Asian elephant population.[34]

Protected areas and military enforcement

Due to previously limited law enforcement in the Cardamom rainforest during the 1990s, conditions for poaching were rife. The Asian elephant was particularly of interest to poachers, with their tusks an extremely important commodity for making an extensive profit in the ivory trade.[35] Following this, in a short period of only 4 years (from 2000 to 2004), almost 40 Asian elephants were poached across the Cardamom Range, and until 2016, the rate of poaching had not declined.[36] As a result, from 2002-2016, Wildlife Alliance – a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) who dedicate its work to species conservation and protection in tropical forests – assisted the implementation of stricter law enforcement across the Cardamom Range in areas where the elephant were most vulnerable to poaching.

With support from the Cambodian Government, the Wildlife Alliance established seven ranger patrol stations which included military police officers in the case that illegal poaching occurred and thus armed backup was required. Importantly, park rangers and military officers were present at each station 24/7 to ensure strict enforcement across the landscape. Consequently, the outcome was significantly effective, proving how critical strict law enforcement is to the conservation of endangered species; 370 illegal poachers were caught and almost 181,000 snares had been found and removed between 2006 and 2016.[35]

Community involvement

However, this project led by the Wildlife Alliance spent a substantial amount of time on researching and piloting methods to compensate the local communities that surround the Cardamom who largely relied upon the illegal wildlife trade as a source of income. Due to significant funding, in 2007, the most successful form of community engagement undertaken by this project was affording payments to Chi Phat locals who participated in the Community Based Ecotourism project. These people were paid to provide services to tourists who used the project, with women also having influential leadership roles within the project; this was an unprecedented move.

The outcome of this ecotourism project was a sustainable livelihood that did not depend on the destructive practice of poaching, providing both social and ecological sustainability.[37] Consequently, by implementing both strict law enforcement and extensive local community involvement, these two efforts have worked together and caused not a single Asian elephant to be poached across the protected regions of the Cardamom Range since 2006.[35]

Anourok Cambodia Forestry Project

Anourok Cambodia Forestry Project is one of the main forest conservation projects held by EcoAct[38]. This project prevents deforestation of the Cardamom Mountain Range that runs along with borders of Thailand in southwest Cambodia. The Cardamom Mountain Range spreads over 20,000 km2 and its the largest rainforest in Southeast Asia. Unfortunately, it is currently critically threatened by illegal logging and poaching.

With the intention of maintaining the biodiversity and the habitat for many local species, this offsetting initiative concentrates on the South of this region. 50 of these native species, including the Asian elephant, Asian brown bear, Clouded Leopard, and Siamese crocodile, are listed on the IUCN's Red List[39]. This area also supports 28 local communities, or 16,319 people, of whom are only 16% live above the poverty threshold set by the government of Cambodia.

This project aligns with the United Nation's (UN) Sustainable Development Goals. [40] Currently, 445,339 hectares of forest are protected and re-introduction species approaches are being made. Also, this project promoted and provided sustainable agriculture, job opportunities, community fund for local communities and ecotourism is achieved.

EcoAct.

EcoAct is an international network of EcoActors across 9 regions: France, UK, Spain, USA, Canada, Germany, Italy, Turkey and Kenya. EcoAct aims to encourage corporations to make changes that are more favourable in response to the carbon and climate challenges while promoting their business performance[41]. EcoAct joined Atos on October 1st, 2020. Together, EcoAct and Atos provide our partners a collaboration to efficient implement comprehensive decarbonization programmes and meet aspirations for net zero emissions according to our shared vision.They have over 300 experts participating and this network worked with clients across diverse industries to assist them with their climate considerations for over 17 years[41]. They covered over 280 projects across 35 countries since 2006[41].

Ecoact aims net zero for carbon neutrality, and provides a wide range of services. They reduce emissions through energy management, renewable energy, innovation and collaboration, while separating their services into stages, from planning, forecasting, measuring, changing and contributing[42].

Cambodia’s Outstanding Dry Forest Landscape in the Eastern Plains [WWF]

Organization

World Wildlife (WWF) is an organization that works globally to conserve biodiversity and the environment. They aim to help local communities by collaborating with the necessary stakeholders to come up with policies and conseration projects to improve their environmental issues.[43]

“For Nature, For People, Forever”[43]

They are focused on six goals:

  • Create a Climate-resilent and zero carbon world, powered by renewable energy [43]
  • Double net food availability; freeze its footprint [43]
  • Conserve the world's most important forests [43]
  • Secure water for people and nature [43]
  • Safeguard healthy oceans and marine livelihoods [43]
  • Conserve threatened wildlife and wild places to sustain life on Earth [43]
Cambodia

In Cambodia, WWF is specifically interested conserving the valuable biodiversity through tackling their problem with resources exploitation such as with deforestation being a large threat to Cambodia’s environment and the habitat of its organisms. [44]


WWF is currently working on two projects in Cambodia: Eastern Plains Landscape area and Mekong Wetlands.[45] The Eastern Plains Landscape Project has more information so the following will be discussing more about this project over the freshwater habitat project on Mekong River and Tonele Sap Lake.[45]

The Eastern Plains Landscape Project

The Eastern Plains Landscape is of interest to WWF due to its importance for global biodiversity, specific to the province of Mondulkiri.[45] This intact forest of interest includes 4 provinces: Ratanakiri, Mondulkiri, Kratie and Stung Treng.[45] The purpose of this project is to conserve this biodiversity within protected areas (Srepok Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary) and throughout the province by addressing the issue of resource exploitation.[45]

Key Project Activities
  • Improving community-based natural resource management, education and awareness. [45]
  • Ecotourism development for conservation livelihoods.[45]
  • Research Mondulkiri's rich biodiversity for effective management.[45]
  • Reduce threats to wildlife and forest habitat.[45]
Outcome

This project commenced on March 3rd, 2014 but there does not seem to be much updates on the conservation efforts currently.[46]

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.[47]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Cambodia environment outlook. Ministry of Environment, Kingdom of Cambodia. 2009. ISBN 9789743001970.
  2. ↑ Coad, Lauren; Lim, Sotheary; Nuon, Lim (Summer 2019). "Wildlife and Livelihoods in the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 7. doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00296.
  3. ↑ Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D'Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., Kassem, K. R. 2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth. Bioscience 51(11):933-938 https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051%5B0933:TEOTWA%5D2.0.CO;2
  4. ↑ "Map Gallery". Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Fisher, Matthew R. "Aquatic Biomes". Environmental Biology.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Indochina Mixed Forests & Peatlands bioregion". One Earth.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Wikramanayake, Eric. "Cardamom Mountains Rainforests". One Earth.
  8. ↑ Pripanapong, Suparp. "OYSTER CULTURE IN THAILAND". Food and Agriculture Organization.
  9. ↑ Murray, Kieran. "The kingdom's corals – How are Cambodia's reefs doing?". Fauna and Flora International.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 "Marine Conservation Cambodia (MCC)". Marine Conservation Cambodia.
  11. ↑ Wikramanayake, Eric. "Indochina Mangroves". One Earth.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Grismer, Larry (Spring 2007). "The herpetofauna of the Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary and checklist of the herpetofauna of the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia". Hamadryad. 31: 216–241 – via Research Gate.
  13. ↑ Kozhikkodan Veettil, Bijeesh; Xuan Quang, Ngo (Winter 2019). "Mangrove forests of Cambodia: Recent changes and future threats". Ocean & Coastal Management. 181. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.104895 Check |doi= value (help) – via Science Direct.
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 Campbell, Ian; Poole, Colin; Giesen, Wim; Valbo-Jorgensen, John (Winter 2006). "Species diversity and ecology of Tonle Sap Great Lake, Cambodia". Aquatic Sciences. 68 (3). doi:10.1007/s00027-006-0855-0 – via Springer.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Heng, Kong; Chevalier, Mathieu; Lek, Sovan; Laffaille, Pascal (Summer 2018). "Seasonal variations in diet composition, diet breadth and dietary overlap between three commercially important fish species within a flood-pulse system: The tonle sap lake (cambodia)". PLOS One. 13 (6). doi:doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198848 Check |doi= value (help) – via PLOS.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Cambodia environment outlook. Ministry of Environment, Kingdom of Cambodia. 2009. ISBN 9789743001970.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Eames, Johnathan; Steinheimer, Frank; Bansok, Ros (2002). "A collection of birds from the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia, including a new subspecies of Arborophila cambodiana". Forktail. 18: 67–86. line feed character in |title= at position 51 (help)
  18. ↑ Daltry, Jenny; Momberg, Frank (2000). Cardamom Mountains biodiversity survey 2000. Cambridge: Fauna and Flora International. ISBN 9781903703007.
  19. ↑ Emmett, David; Olsson, Annette (2005). "Biological Surveys in the Central Cardamom Mountains". Conservation International Cambodia Program and Forestry Administration. Phnom Penh.
  20. ↑ Argyriou, Dimitrios; Tistan, Adrian; Theilade, Ida; Vogt, Corinna; Turreira, Nerea; Mitterhofer, Philipp; Brofeldt, Søren (2016). "The Current Status of Prey Lang: 4th Monitoring report". PLCN.
  21. ↑ Hayes, Benjamin; Khou, Eang Hourt; Thy, Neang; Furey, Neil; Sophea, Chhin; Holden, Jeremy; Seiha, Hun; Sarith, Phen; Pengly, La; Simpson, Virginia (2015). "Biodiversity Assessment of Prey Land: Kratie, Kampong Thom, Stung Treng and Preah Vihear Provinces".
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 Bain, Raoul; Hurley, Martha (Winter 2011). "A Biogeographic Synthesis of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Indochina". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. American Museum of Natural History. 360 (360). doi:doi.org/10.1206/360.1 Check |doi= value (help) – via BioOne Complete. line feed character in |title= at position 48 (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 "The Rise of Angkor and the Khmer Empire". Retrieved Dec.5.2022. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  24. ↑ Hong, Udom (2007). "The Angkor Empire, Environment, and Conflict". Retrieved Nov.18.2022. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "New research shows how many people lived in the Angkor Empire". Retrieved Nov.18.2022. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Kurfürst, Sandra (2020). "Continuity and change: Transformations in the urban history of Phnom Penh, Cambodia". Southeast Asian Transformations. transcript Verlag. pp. 219–238. doi:https://doi.org/10.1515/9783839451717-014 Check |doi= value (help).
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Maxwell, Andrew L. (2004). "Fire regimes in north-eastern Cambodian monsoonal forests, with a 9300-year sediment charcoal record". Journal of biogeography.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7 28.8 Milne, Sarah; Mahanty, Sango (2015). Conservation and Development in Cambodia. London: Routledge. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-415-70680-3.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Buschmann, Johanna; Berg, Michael; Stengel, Caroline; Sampson, Mickey L. (February 14, 2007). "RETURN TO ISSUEPREVARTICLENEXT Journal Logo Get e-Alerts Arsenic and Manganese Contamination of Drinking Water Resources in Cambodia:  Coincidence of Risk Areas with Low Relief Topography". Environmental Science & Technology. 41: 2146–2152 – via ACS Publications. line feed character in |title= at position 31 (help)
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 "Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary: The largest lowland evergreen forest remaining in mainland Southeast Asia and Cambodia's largest protected area". Conservation International. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
  31. ↑ Strangio, Sebastian (February 25, 2021). "Logging Accelerates in Cambodia's Prey Lang Sanctuary". The Diplomat. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
  32. ↑ "Cambodia: Marine Mammal Conservation Project". Lighthouse Foundation.
  33. ↑ Kemf, Elizabeth & Jackson, Peter. (1995). "Asian Elephants in the Wild". World Wide Fund for Nature, Switzerland.
  34. ↑ Ling, Lee Ee., Arrifn, Mariani., & Latifah, Adb Manaf. (2016). "A qualitative analysis of the main threats to Asian elephant conservation". Gajah 44: 16-22.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Gray, Thomas., Hort, Sokun., Lefter, Eduard., Grosu, Romica., Kong, Kimsreng., Keo, Omaliss. & Gauntlett, Suwanna. (2016). "A decade of zero elephant poaching in the Cardamom Rainforest Landscape, Cambodia". Gajah, 45: 35-38.
  36. ↑ Weiler, Hunter. (2006). "Cambodia Community Wildlife Ranger Tiger and Elephant Conservation Program: Final Report to United States Fish and Wildlife Service". Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
  37. ↑ Reimer, Kila. and Walter, Pierre. (2013). "How do you know it when you see it? Community-based ecotourism in the Cardamom Mountains of southwestern Cambodia". Tourism Management, 34: 122-132.
  38. ↑ "Anourok Cambodia Forestry Project". 2022. Retrieved Dec.5.2022. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  39. ↑ IUCN (2022). "The IUCN Red List Of Threatened Species". Retrieved Dec.5.2022. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  40. ↑ "United Nations Sustainable Development- 17 Goals". Retrieved Dec.5.2022. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 "Eco Act.- About Us". 2022. Retrieved Dec.5. 2022. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  42. ↑ "Act on Ideas, Change for Zero". 2022. Retrieved Dec.5.2022. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 43.4 43.5 43.6 43.7 "About Us". World Wildlife.
  44. ↑ "Our Mission in Cambodia". WWF.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 45.6 45.7 45.8 "ON THE GROUND — WWF-CAMBODIA'S CONSERVATION EFFORTS". WWF.
  46. ↑ "New project in Eastern Plains Landscape, Mondulkiri Province, aims to secure natural heritage & significant biodiversity". WWF Panda.
  47. ↑ En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].


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