Course:FNH200/2014w Team03 Chia

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Introduction

Chia seeds have only recently appeared as a new food ingredient in the commercial food industry. However, the lack of research and regulations has led to numerous health claims that are associated with chia seeds and how they are seen as a "superfood" by many. Therefore, in this project we aim to investigate the truth behind these claims by answering several questions, such as: Where are chia seeds grown? How long have chia seeds been used as a food item? What are traditional uses of chia seeds? What is the nutritional content of chia seeds and how do they compare to other foods? How are chia seeds processed and packaged, and what factors contribute to their freshness and/or spoilage? What are Canadian and international regulations regarding the use of chia seeds as a food product, if any? What functional properties of chia seeds make them a popular new food product, and what are future possibilities for their use?

History and Cultivation

Drawing from the Florentine Codex showing a Salvia hispanica plant.[1]

Chia seeds, also known as Salvia hispanica, have long been used in Central and South America, especially Mexico. Since the time of the Aztecs, it was one of the main crops of cultivation for the Aztec peoples.[1] Interestingly, the name “chia” comes from the Mayan word meaning ‘strength’ which indicates just how powerful these tiny seeds are.[2] In 16th century Mexico it was considered to be so important and valuable that many states used it to pay tribute to Spain. Today they are grown in other South American countries such as Bolivia, Ecuador and Chile.[1]

Traditionally chia seeds are eaten raw or made into a flour by grinding the seed into a flour. Today, in many of these South American countries the seed is made into a traditional flour/meal called “pinole.”[1] Pinole is then used to make special cakes or cookies. Prior to 1990, chia seeds had nearly been made extinct in South America as a result of Spanish colonization, during which chia seeds were banned due to their importance in religious ceremonies.[2] It was only in 1990 that a scientist, Dr. Wayne Coates, began to work on commercializing chia seed production in Argentina which has lead to its continual and ongoing popularity throughout the world, due to its purported health benefits.[2]

Today, chia seeds are most commonly grown in South America and mostly for human consumption. Chia is a flowering plant, whose flowers can be either blue or white and its pollination is via bees and wasps.[3] Typically it is grown in the summer months so that it can flower before the frost comes as the plants are extremely sensitive to frost.[3] It has a long growing season, around 5 months. Chia plants have a relatively low water need which is beneficial to the countries it is grown in, as during the summer months in Argentina and Ecuador, for example, there is relatively little rainfall.[3]

Chemical and Physical Properties

Hydration

Chia seeds before hydration.
Chia seeds after hydration, showing the mucilaginous gel coat around each seed.

Chia seeds are strongly hydrophilc, capable of absorbing several times their weight in liquids such as water.[4] This hydration capability is due to the structure of the outer seed coat, comprised largely of long-chain polysaccharides and proteins arranged into microfibers that swell and lengthen upon contact with water, forming a mucilaginous gel around the seed.[5][6] Chia seed mucilage is what is known as a hydrophilic colloid, or hydrocolloid. A hydrocolloid is a colloidal dispersion in which the dispersed phase is the polymer (such as a polysaccharide or protein), often containing a large number of hydroxyl groups that have an affinity for binding with the continuous phase, water. Hydrocolloids can behave as gels or sols, depending on the concentration of water present.[7] Hydrocolloids are used in several applications in the food industry, including thickening, gelling, emulsifying, and stabilization. Common examples of hydrocolloids currently used in the food industry include agar, carrageenan, guar and xanthan gums, pectin, and gelatin.[7]

Possible Applications

Chia seed mucilage has been found to have potential for use the food industry due to its stabilizing and thickening abilities.[5][6] Chia seed mucilage can act as a thickening agent and stabilizer by increasing the viscosity of the continuous phase in colloidal dispersions. In oil-in-water emulsions, this thickening of the continuous phase acts to hinder the movement of dispersed oil droplets, leading to the formation of a stable emulsion[8] (see also Lesson 02). Chia seed mucilage has been shown to have greater emulsion stability than commercially available guar gum and gelatin,[9] and may thus be suitable for use in bakery products, powdered beverages, yogurt, ice cream, as well as sauces and creams.[8]

The hydrophilic nature of chia seed mucilage fibers gives them a high water holding capacity (WHC), which is a measure of "the amount of water absorbed and held by the hydrated sample after an external force is applied[9]." WHC is important in the manufacture of some food products, such as sausages, to improve structure and lessen water loss during the cooking process.[9] Thus, chia seed mucilage that has been extracted and dehydrated may be useful in the production of sausages and other meat products.

Another interesting property of chia seed mucilage is its freeze-thaw stability, which is a measure of syneresis (separation of water) after a food is frozen and thawed.[9] Because of its high WHC, chia seed mucilage helps prevent the separation of water that may lead to the formation of ice crystals[9] which may negatively affect food quality (see also Lesson 07), highlighting the potential application of chia seed mucilage as a stabilizer in frozen foods.

Nutrient Value

Chia seeds are nutrient dense. They contain 19 amino acids, including all 9 essential amino acids, and are a source of other nutrients such B vitamins, and minerals including calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus and zinc.[10] Chia seeds are also a good source a dietary fibre, with a one ounce (28.35g) serving containing 9.8 grams of fibre, 39.2% of the Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) for women and 25.8% for men.[11] The fatty acid composition of chia seeds is approximately 10% saturated fat, 55% omega-3 (including alpha-linoleic acid, or ALA), 18% omega-6, and 6% omega-9.[10]

The following table provides a summary comparison of the nutrient composition of chia seeds and two other seeds, flax and buckwheat:

Nutrient Units Chia seeds, dried
(2 Tbsp/30ml)[10]		 Flaxseed
(2 Tbsp/30ml)[12]		 Buckwheat
(2 Tbsp/30ml)[13]
Calories kcal 117 110 73
Protein g 4 3.8 2.82
Fat g 7.4 8.7 0.7
Fiber g 8.3 5.6 2.1
Carbohydrates g 10.1 6 15.2
Calcium mg 151 53 4
Iron mg 1.85 1.2 0.5
Magnesium mg 80 81 49
Phosphorus mg 206 132 74
Potassium mg 98 167 98
Vitamin C mg 0.4 0.1 0
Thiamin mg 0.15 0.3 0.02
Niacin mg 2.1 0.6 1.5
Folate μg 0 18 6
Vitamin E mg 0.12 0.06 0
Saturated Fatty Acids g 0.8 0.8 0.16
Mono-unsaturated Fatty Acids g 0.6 1.6 0.2
Poly-unsaturated Fatty Acids g 5.7 5.9 0.2
Key:    Proximates    Minerals    Vitamins    Lipids


Black vs White Chia Seeds: Is There a Difference?

Black chia seeds (left) and white chia seeds (right).[14]

Chia seeds of the commercially available species Salvia hispanica vary in colour. While they can be white, grey or black in nature, chia seeds are predominately marketed in two colours, black and white, the former of which are highly available and recognized. Study has showed that the nutritional content of chia seeds does not vary significantly based on colour[15], so choosing between white and black chia seeds is an aesthetic choice rather than a nutritional one.


Regulations

Unregulated statement on the label.

Currently, regulations on the production, consumption and labeling of chia seeds is limited to the European Union market. While there are other species of chia such as Salvia columbariae[16], commonly known as the golden chia, The Commission Decision 2009/827/EC authorised the labeling of "Chia seeds" exclusively to the species Salvia hispanica. It categorized chia seeds as a novel food ingredient and could be used up to 5% in bread products. Reassessment of chia seeds in accordance to the Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health resulted in the Commission Implementing Decision 2013/50/EU, which authorised an extension of the use of Chia seed from a maximum of 5% in bread products to a maximum of 10% in baked products, breakfast cereals, fruit nut and seed mixes. Marketed chia seed in its original form must be sold pre-packaged with additional labeling to inform consumers that the daily intake is no more than 15 g/day [17].


The lack of regulations, especially on the labeling of chia products, often lead to over-exaggerated statements on the products' labels, such as "the richest plant-based source of omega-3, proteins, fibres and antioxidants," "30 percent more antioxidants than blueberries," or "more potassium than a banana"[18]. Companies are able to make these statements based on unrealistic serving sizes and selective definitions due to the lack of specific regulations, such as in the case of milk fat where low fat milk must have "3 g or less per 100 g and not more than 30% of calories from fat" and free fat (skim) milk contains "less than 0.5g of fat per labelled serving"[19]. However, this does not hinder the fact that chia seeds are indeed rich in nutrients and therefore, highly sought-after by consumers. The lack of regulations, especially in North America, does not prevent the mass production and consumption of chia products in these regions.

General Processing Procedure

Chia Processing Flow Chart


At small scale production such as non-commercial domestic cultivation, chia seeds require minimal post-processing procedure to separate the seeds from other part of the plants. However, on the commercial scale, post-processing of chia seeds are much more complicated and requires multiple cleaning as well as quality control steps that can be summarized as below.

Chia seed reception

This is a critical control point (CCP) for moisture monitoring, optical and chemical contamination check of the original chia samples before processing[20]. Chia seeds are prone to spoilage or sprouting when exposed to high moisture environment and therefore must always keep dry[21]. Present of wet seeds in the sample would also affect the moisture and thus quality of other dry seeds and therefore it is crucial to remove any wet sample before processing. Optical check can easily ensure this as wet chia seeds swell up and form a transparent, gelatine-like outer layer of the real seeds that significantly differ from the appearance of dry chia seeds.

Cleaning

With the size of 1.5 to 2mm in length, contamination with impurities in chia samples is inevitable and difficult to eliminate[22]. Therefore, chia seed processing procedure consists of multiple cleaning steps which aim to purify the chia samples, ensuring that no physical contaminations, such as by-products of the harvesting process, are present. Commercial cleaning of chia requires the use of gravity separator, an industrial method of separating small, light components from heavier impurities using based on their difference in specific weights. A vibrating screen is often incorporated with the separator to also separate the components based on size, therefore increasing the precision of the cleaning process up to 99% and higher[23].

Drying

Unlike flax seeds, chia could be stored up to two years under optimal conditions[24]. This ability is enforced by dehydration, a crucial step in increasing the storing stability of chia by removing its water content and therefore reducing potential microorganism activities[25]. Dehydration is often carried out after pre-cleaning when chia seeds are placed in drying silos with monitored temperature and air moisture[26]. This is also a point check for color, impurities, temperature and moisture content of the chia samples. Together with the cleaning steps, moisture monitoring is most important as chia seeds easily absorb water up to 9 times their weights and hence, moisture checks are performed constantly throughout the whole processing procedure.

Other quality control steps

Chia seeds are also checked for magnetic particles and non magnetic metal impurities such as aluminium and stainless steel by running the samples through a magnetic tunnel and a metal detector and separator. Since the seeds are so small, transportation of the seeds from farms to the processing plant as well as the transfer of the seeds from one machine to another might pick up unnecessary particles and therefore this step is relatively important to ensure purity of the final sample.

Storage

Microorganisms require oxygen and free water in order to survive and multiply. Therefore, monitoring oxygen level and water content of food is crucial in enabling extension of storage life[27]. The dehydration step above removed most water from chia seeds and therefore minimizes microorganism activities. However, exposure to air during the cleaning process might increase oxygen content and water activities in chia seeds and therefore revive microbiological level to a certain extent. As a result, in the final steps chia seeds are subjected to controlled temperature and humidity during storage to restore the desired optimal moisture content. The samples are then checked for moisture and microbiological levels before being placed in hermetic (air-tight) chamber to minimize the introduction of moisture and microorganisms from outside sources.

Packaging

Since chia seeds are sensitive to humidity and moisture level, they are often packaged in stand up pouches which contain multiple layers of films that are designed to prevent penetration of vapour, odour and moisture from outside environment. Stand up pouches also contain zip seal closures to minimize exposure of the seeds to oxygen and moisture in air after opening the package and therefore, extend the shelf life of chia in opened packages.

Commercially Available Chia Products

Chia seeds can be marketed in various forms as can be seen below

Whole Chia Seed

Whole chia seed contains all the essential parts of the seed with the retention of naturally-occurring nutrient contents and ratio. According to the Commission Implementing Decision 2013/50/EU, whole chia seeds must contain 20-22% of protein component, 30-35% of fat content, 25-41% of carbohydrates and 18-30% of dietary fibres after subjected to a process of mechanical cleaning to remove contaminants such as flowers, leaves and other parts of the plant [28].

Micro Milled Chia Seed

More commonly known as ground chia seed, this product can be obtained by milling of whole chia seeds to the size of 1.1 to 1.7mm. Micro milled chia seed should maintain all essential nutrition such as proteins, vitamin and oil contents in the original whole seeds. However, many ground products are replaced with fillers such as other seeds and de-fatted chia meal, which is essentially the remnant of chia seeds after removal of most essential oil content. Therefore, ground chia seed without clear labelling could be deceptive as it might contain less nutrition and omega-3 content than whole chia seeds[28]. Nevertheless, micro milled chia seed has been found to be digested more readily by the human body due to its small particle size and is therefore better as an ingredient in home cook recipes[28].

Chia Flour

Similar to other types of flour, chia flour particle are very fine, ranging from 0.2mm to 0.4mm in size. It can replace common flour for baking and other purposes with high binding property and the benefit of increasing protein and fibre content in the final products. However, chia flour is often lower in omega 3 oil content as most essential oils must be removed during the refining process in order to achieve the final appearance of chia flour[28]. As a result, de-fatted chia meal, the by-product of oil extraction process to make chia oil, is usually used to make chia flour.

Chia Oil

Chia seeds yield approximately 25-30% extractable oil. Most chia seed oil is produced using a cold-press oil extractor.[29] Chia seed oil can be used to replace certain oils in food preparations such as salad dressings, and be added to smoothies as a source of omega fatty acids and to help with the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.[30] Chia seed oil can be an important source of omega-3 fatty acids for people allergic to other omega-3 rich foods such as seafood and nuts. Since chia is a plant, chia seed oil can also be a source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegans and vegetarians.[31]

Chia seed oil has also garnered interest for its non-food applications, such as the treatment of skin dryness and itching associated with skin disorders and other health problems.[32]

Culinary Uses

Chia seeds, whether whole or ground, have many culinary applications, including:

  1. As a topping for foods, including yogurt, oatmeal, and salads.[33]
  2. In smoothies and other beverages. Chia fresca is a traditional Mexican drink made with chia seeds.[34]
  3. In baking. Chia seeds can be added to baked goods to add texture and help stabilize the structure.[35] Chia seeds can also be used as an egg replacer in baked goods: mix 1 tablespoon of chia seeds with 3 tablespoons of water and allow to sit for 10-15 minutes. Use in place of 1 egg in baked goods.[36]
  4. As the sole thickener in a pudding made with almond milk or another milk alternative.[37]
  5. As a replacement for pectin in thickening fruit jams and jellies.[38]

Chia seeds have been shown to be able to replace up to 25% of the egg and fat in cakes without negatively affecting the colour, structure and flavour.[39]


Below is a gallery showing applications of chia in commercially prepared food products that are available in supermarkets and other food retailers.

  • Commercially Prepared Chia Products
  • Chia Granola cereal/snack from Mamma Chia

    Chia Granola cereal/snack from Mamma Chia

  • Snack bar made with chia seeds from Mamma Chia

    Snack bar made with chia seeds from Mamma Chia

  • Vanilla and coconut milk chia pudding from The Chia Co.

    Vanilla and coconut milk chia pudding from The Chia Co.

  • Cherry lime flavoured chia beverage from Mamma Chia

    Cherry lime flavoured chia beverage from Mamma Chia

  • Whole wheat chia seed bread from Cobs Bread, a Vancouver-based bakery chain.

    Whole wheat chia seed bread from Cobs Bread, a Vancouver-based bakery chain.

Safety

Salmonella Recall

From June to August 2014, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency issued a recall warning for products containing chia seeds and sprouted chia seed powder due to contamination with the bacterium Salmonella after an estimated 63 people became ill as a result of consuming the affected products.[40] Affected products included raw chia seeds, sprouted chia seed powder, as well as snack foods such as trail mix and fruit-and-nut-based snack bars that contained chia seed.[41] American consumers were also affected, and the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued similar recall warnings.[42]

Esophageal Obstruction

In 2014, the American College of Gastroenterology presented the findings of a case involving a 39-year-old man who suffered an esophageal obstruction after consuming a spoonful of dried, raw chia seeds followed by a glass of water.[43] When eaten dry, chia seeds can expand in the esophagus, leading to an obstruction that can be difficult to remove. Consequently, medical professionals do not advise the consumption of dry, raw chia seeds, particularly by those individuals with a history of constricted esophagus or swallowing problems. [43] Chia seeds should only be consumed on their own after first being mixed with liquid and allowed to expand.

Slideshow

Click the following link to view our slideshow, which gives a brief overview of the functional properties of chia seeds and how they can be used in cooking (with recipes!):

FNH 200 Team 03 Presentation: The Amazing Absorbing Chia Seed!

Reflections and Conclusion

After completing this project, our group learned that chia seeds, while a relatively new food trend in North America, have a long history in Central and South America stretching back for centuries. Their use in food applications has not yet been fully explored but there is potential for chia seeds to be useful as a food ingredient for its unique stabilizing abilities. Chia seeds are a nutritionally dense food, but the lack of regulation about health claims specific to chia seeds requires that one read statements made on chia products about its purported health benefits with a critical eye. Nevertheless, chia seeds have an abundance of culinary applications, and we encourage you to try adding them to your diet! If you are curious about cooking with chia seeds, please view our slideshow to see three different preparations.

Possible Exam Question

How do chia seeds help to promote stable oil-in-water emulsions?

Answer: Chia seed mucilage acts as a stabilizer by increasing the viscosity of the continuous phase in oil-in-water emulsions. The thickening of the continuous phase hinders the movement of dispersed oil droplets, leading to the formation of a stable emulsion.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Cahill, J. (2003). Ethnobotany of Chia, Salvia hispanica L. (Lamiaceae). Economic Botany, 57(4), 604-618. Retrieved March 17, 2015, from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0604:EOCSHL]2.0.CO;2
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Marlowe, M. (2014, April 21). 7 Things You Didn't Know About...Chia Seeds! Retrieved March 15, 2015, from http://www.wellnesstoday.com/nutrition/7-things-you-didnt-know-aboutchia-seeds
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 CHIA SEEDS. (2014, January 1). Retrieved March 17, 2015, from http://tavira-sa.com/content/chia-seeds-1
  4. ↑ MySeeds Chia Seed Hydration. Available from: http://www.mychiaseeds.com/Articles/ChiaSeedHydration.html
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Capitani, M. I., Ixtaina, V. Y., Nolasco, S. M., & Tomás, M. C. (2013). Microstructure, chemical composition and mucilage exudation of chia (salvia hispanica L.) nutlets from argentina. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 93(15), 3856-3862. doi:10.1002/jsfa.6327
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Munoz, L., Cobos, A., Diaz, O., & Aguilera, J. (2012). Chia seeds: Microstructure, mucilage extraction and hydration. Journal of Food Engineering, 108(1), 216-224. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.06.037
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Jafar Milani and Gisoo Maleki (2012). Hydrocolloids in Food Industry, Food Industrial Processes - Methods and Equipment, Dr. Benjamin Valdez (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-905-9, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/food-industrial-processes-methods-and-equipment/hydrocolloids-in-food-industry
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Marianela I. Capitani, Susana M. Nolasco and Mabel C. Tomás (2013). Effect of Mucilage Extraction on the Functional Properties of Chia Meals, Food Industry, Dr. Innocenzo Muzzalupo (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0911-2, InTech, DOI: 10.5772/53171. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/food-industry/effect-of-mucilage-extraction-on-the-functional-properties-of-chia-meals
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Coorey, R., Tjoe, A., & Jayasena, V. (2014). Gelling properties of chia seed and flour. Journal of Food Science, 79(5), E859-E866. doi:10.1111/1750-3841.12444
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. "Seeds, chia seeds, dried." Available from: http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3643?fgcd=&manu=&lfacet=&format=&count=&max=35&offset=&sort=&qlookup=chia
  11. ↑ Government of Canada. "Fibre." Available from http://healthycanadians.gc.ca/eating-nutrition/label-etiquetage/tips-conseils/table_fibre-eng.php
  12. ↑ United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. "Seeds, flaxseed." Available from: http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3745?fgcd=&manu=&lfacet=&format=&count=&max=35&offset=&sort=&qlookup=flaxseed
  13. ↑ United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. "Buckwheat." Available from: http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6427?fgcd=&manu=&lfacet=&format=&count=&max=35&offset=&sort=&qlookup=buckwheat
  14. ↑ Lose Weight and Gain Health. Available from: https://loseweightandgainhealth.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/black-and-white-chia-seeds.jpg
  15. ↑ AZChia (2006). "Black Chia Seeds vs White Chia Seeds." Available from: http://www.azchia.com/black-chia-seeds-vs-white-chia-seeds
  16. ↑ Plants Profile for Salvia columbariae (chia). (n.d.). Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=SACO6
  17. ↑ COMMISSION IMPLEMENTING DECISION of 22 January 2013. (n.d.). Retrieved April 1, 2015, from https://www.fsai.ie/uploadedFiles/Legislation/Food_Legisation_Links/Novel_Foods_And_Ingredients/Decision50_2013.pdf
  18. ↑ Collias, N. (2013, March 22). Super Seed: The Case For Chia! - Bodybuilding.com. Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/super-seed-the-case-for-chia.html
  19. ↑ U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (n.d.). Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/LabelingNutrition/ucm064911.htm
  20. ↑ Vasquez srl, M. (n.d.). Chia Seed Quality Control process flow chart. Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://www.chia-direct.com/quality process flow.pdf
  21. ↑ Sprout Glossary. (n.d.). Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://sproutpeople.org/growing-sprouts/help/
  22. ↑ Cahill JP, Provance MC. Genetics of qualitative traits in domesticated chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Journal of Heredity. 2002;93(1):52–55
  23. ↑ Gravity Separator Machine Manufacturer, Specific Gravity Separators Exporter. (2014, May 18). Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://www.spectrumsorter.com/gravity-separator/
  24. ↑ Adams, M. (2012, November 11). Natural News. Chia seeds are the ultimate survival food for long-term storage Learn more: Http://www.naturalnews.com/037916_chia_seeds_storable_food_preparedness.html##ixzz3W4nmil3j.
  25. ↑ Dehydration as a Food Preservation Method. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Available from http://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lesson_08.
  26. ↑ Vasquez srl, M. (n.d.). Chia Seed Quality Control process flow chart. Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://www.chia-direct.com/quality process flow.pdf
  27. ↑ Chan, J. (n.d.). FNH200/Lesson 05 - Rational for Food Preservation. Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lesson_05
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Chia Terminology Definitions of everything chia seed. (n.d.). Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://www.chia-brand.com/?pVar=351
  29. ↑ OilPress.co. "Chia Seed Oil Extraction." Available from: http://www.oilpress.co/oil-press-chia.php
  30. ↑ Healtwithfood.org. “Chia Oil: Health Benefits and Culinary Uses." Available from http://www.healwithfood.org/health-benefits/chia-oil-uses.php
  31. ↑ Healtwithfood.org. "10 Plant-Based Sources of Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Vegans and Vegetarians." Available from: http://www.healwithfood.org/best-dietary-sources/plant-based-omega-3-for-vegans.php
  32. ↑ Jeong, S. K., Park, H. J., Park, B. D., & Kim, I. (2010). Effectiveness of topical chia seed oil on pruritus of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients and healthy volunteers. Annals of Dermatology, 22(2), 143-148. doi:10.5021/ad.2010.22.2.143
  33. ↑ Canadian Living. "4 great ways to use chia seeds." Available from: http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cooking_school/4_great_ways_to_use_chia_seeds.php
  34. ↑ About.com. "Chia fresca." Available from: http://mexicanfood.about.com/od/mexicanbeverages/a/Chia-Fresca.htm
  35. ↑ WikiHow.com. "How to Eat Chia Seeds." Available from: http://www.wikihow.com/Eat-Chia-Seeds
  36. ↑ Real Food, Allergy Free. "Chia Egg Replacement/Substitute." Available from: http://www.realfoodallergyfree.com/2011/05/chia-egg-replacementsubstitute
  37. ↑ The Daily Burn. "Vanilla-Almond Chia Pudding." Available from: http://dailyburn.com/life/recipes/chia-breakfast-pudding/
  38. ↑ The Honour System. "Raspberry Chia Seed Jam - Gluten Free." Available from: http://thehonoursystem.com/2013/12/11/raspberry-chia-seed-jam-vegan-gluten-free/
  39. ↑ Borneo, R. (2010). Chia (salvia hispanica L) gel can be used as egg or oil replacer in cake formulations. J Am Diet Assoc, 110(6), 946-949. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.011
  40. ↑ Public Health Agency of Canada (2014). "Public Health Notice - Outbreak of Salmonella infections related to sprouted chia seed powder." Available from: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/phn-asp/2014/salmonella-nh-053114-eng.php
  41. ↑ Canadian Food Inspection Agency (2014). "Canadian Food Inspection Agency's Investigation into Salmonella in Chia Seeds: List of Recalled Products." Available from: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/information-for-consumers/food-safety-investigations/salmonella-chia-seeds/recalled-products/eng/1402938305949/1402938307308
  42. ↑ U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2014). "Navitas Naturals© Expands Voluntary Recall for Organic Sprouted Chia Powder Products." Available from: http://www.fda.gov/Safety/Recalls/ucm400185.htm
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 WebMD (2014). "Use Chia Seeds With Caution, Researcher Warns." Available from: http://www.webmd.com/diet/20141021/use-chia-seeds-with-caution-researcher-warns
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