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Course:EOSC311/2026/Geographical Implications of Fossil Fuels

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Summary / Abstract

In this project, we connect Geographical Sciences to geology by exploring the geopolitics associated with fossil fuels. To start, we inform the distribution of these resources — more specifically the kind of conditions required to form them. Then, we delve into a case study of the Persian Gulf: a region rich in oil and consequently conflict. To conclude, we talk about the implications of fossil fuels, and how the industry is expected to change in the future.

Statement of connection

Our modern world is powered by energy, this makes the geological distribution of resources like fossil fuels, a major driving force in global geopolitics. We chose to explore this topic because the political borders we see today were shaped by several years of conflict and resolution. Earth’s resources are scattered according to historical environmental conditions and tectonic movements, not modern treaties or borders.

When profitable resources such as coal, oil, and gas can be found beneath our feet, it eventually leads to conflict between countries, economic disputes, and even war. Understanding where these resources are located can allow us to better understand global geopolitics.

Fossil Fuels

General Information

How Fossil Fuels Develop

The fossil fuels behind modern geopolitical conflicts originally began to form millions of years ago, requiring very environmental and geological conditions. The process first begins with a large deposition of organic matter, such as plankton in oceans.[1] This organic material then needs to settle in environments with very low oxygen to prevent it from decomposing.[1] Over millions of years, these organic layers get buried under large amounts of sediment, causing it get compacted. As it gets pushed deeper into the Earth’s crust, the heat and pressure continues to increase. This causes it to form into a waxy substance called kerogen[1], eventually based on the temperature it can transform into usable fossil fuel.

  • Oil Formation: Usually occurs between 80C to 120C, the kerogen converts into liquid oil.[1]
  • Gas Formation: At higher temperatures (120C+), the oil further breaks down, creating natural gas. It is important that temperatures don’t get too high, otherwise the hydrocarbons crack into methane and will be destroyed.[1]
  • Coal Formation: Terrestrial plant matter goes through a similar process of compaction, first becoming peat and eventually transforming into other types of coal based on their energy density.[2]

The Role of Plate Tectonics

One of the major contributors to the geographical placement of these energy reserves is plate tectonics, which is the movement of the plates (slabs of rock) that make up the Earth’s lithosphere. It is important to note, that as these plates drifted over a long period of time, the regions that currently hold the most fossil fuel reserves were often located in very different climate zones when the organic matter originally accumulated.[3]

Figure 1. Map of Earth's major tectonic plates and boundary zones.

As well, tectonic activity can create the necessary structures to actually trap these resources so they can be extracted in the future. The different types of plate boundaries include:

  • Divergent Boundaries: Plates pull apart and will often create deep sedimentary basins where organic matter can accumulate and be buried over time.[3]
  • Convergent Boundaries: Plates collide which causes the crust to buckle or fold. This deformation can create geological “traps" that catch moving oil and gas, preventing it from seeping to the surface.[3]
  • Transform Boundaries: Plates slide horizontally past one another, this can create complex fault lines that can either seal a reservoir shut or provide vertical pathways for hydrocarbons to migrate.[3]

Case Study: Persian Gulf

The Persian Gulf is a sea located in the Middle East, bordering countries Oman, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran (see Fig. 2). This region has become a site of intense geopolitical conflict, as a result of the lucrative resource it harbours. More specifically, the Persian Gulf has a sizable number of oil fields, capable of producing billions of barrels of oil [4]. Only how did so much oil come to be in this region?

Figure 2. The Persian Gulf

Geological Context

Figure 3. Earth During the Jurassic Period

70% of the Gulf’s oil is sourced from sediments that were deposited during the Mesozoic era, specifically the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods [5]. At this time, the Persian Gulf was situated in the Tethys ocean near the equator (see Fig. 3), where temperatures were warm and waters were rich in organic matter [5]. Additionally, it was located alongside supercontinent Gondwana, which — during the transition from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous Period — began to split apart, causing intense volcanism that further increased nutrients and proliferated plankton populations [5]. The death and burial of these marine organisms are the very reason why the Persian Gulf has such organically rich source rocks. More specifically, these rocks “have between 1% and 13% organic content” [4] — with 2% organic material being the requirement for high quality fuel resources.

Moving on, these sediments — transported via the Arabian continental plate — eventually collided with the Eurasian plate during the Neogene period. This commenced the formation of the Zagros Mountains [5]. Eroded sediment from these mountains were deposited on top of the initial Jurassic-Cretaceous materials, burying them to the depths of the oil and gas window [4]. The newly formed resources were then trapped due to folding by compressive tectonic forces [4][5].

However, the geology of the Persian Gulf is not uniform. The Western side of the Gulf did not experience the same folding and fracturing as the Eastern side did [4]. Alternatively, the Western side was capped off by dome structures called diapirs, which form when salt intrusions travel up through overlying rock layers and solidify [5].

Since its discovery, oil has been extracted through reservoir rock made of limestone, as well as fractures created through continental plate collision [4][5]. However, the ramifications of this process have been more than tangible.

Conflicts

The Persian Gulf War began on August 2nd, 1990 when Saddam Hussein — president of Iraq at the time — attacked Kuwait [6]. Kuwait and Iraq had previously been allies during the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988. However, the war had put Iraq in tremendous debt, and the country sought to gain control of neighboring Kuwait’s oil reserves to alleviate economic difficulties [6]. Although Iraq was condemned by the UN Security Council and given a deadline to withdraw from Kuwait, the country’s refusal led to the death of thousands of civilians and military personnel, as well as damage to infrastructure and oil wells in both countries [6]. This act — termed Operation Desert Storm — was led by the United States, who worried that hindrances to oil production and distribution would wreak havoc on the interconnected, global economy [6]. Additionally, the Gulf War was an opportunity for the US to establish a presence in the Middle East, which laid the groundwork for the Iraq War that occurred between 2003 and 2011 [6].

This contestation is not a thing of the past, with Gulf-related conflict occurring today. For instance, after the Gulf War, the UN demarcated the border between Iraq and Kuwait, with maritime boundaries being set in 2013 [7]. This year, Iraq drew up new boundaries to be reviewed by the UN. This was met with criticism from several Gulf states, as it was consistent with Iraq’s historical behaviour of violating Kuwait’s sovereignty and not being cordial with its neighbors [7]. In addition to this, the Trump administration has currently been leading the US into increasing conflict in the Middle East — particularly Iran — which has yet to be resolved.

Implications of Fossil Fuels

1. Environmental Implications

1.1: Release of Greenhouse Gases

Burning and producing fossil fuels produce a myriad of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb longwave radiation emitted by the Earth and re-emits it, with some returning to the planet’s surface[8]. This induces the greenhouse effect, which warms the Earth. Examples of these gases include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide[8].

  • Carbon dioxide: Fossil fuels are made of carbon. Burning them releases the carbon back into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. This leads to an acceleration of a phase in the carbon cycle—carbon moves from the lithosphere to the atmosphere at a much faster rate[9].
  • Methane: Fossil fuels are the second largest contributor of methane production, coming after agriculture[10]. Methane is formed as a byproduct of fossil fuel development. This forms pockets of methane hydrate. When excavating fossil fuels with methods like fracking, the methane escapes into the atmosphere[3].
  • Nitrous oxide: Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of fossil fuel burning, but the amount emitted depends on the type of fuel, combustion technology, maintenance and operation practices[11].

An overabundance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the increase of the global average temperature, which is a main driver of climate change. Consequences if not regulated include:

  • Changing Weather Patterns: Warmer ocean waters lead to an increased intensity and frequency of major storms and extreme weather events, ravaging coasts[12]. Another example is intense rainstorms in already arid regions, leading to flooding and washing away viable soil.
  • Ocean Acidification: More atmospheric carbon dioxide can dissolve into the ocean, creating carbonic acid. This increases the pH of the ocean[12], and acidic waters are extremely dangerous to marine species—especially those with calcium carbonate shells.
    Figure 4. This map from NASA displays areas highlighted as regions at risk if sea levels were to rise 6m.
  • Sea Levels Rise: This can occur from increased water content from melting ice sheets, or the expansion of the ocean from warmer temperatures. It has risen 9 inches since the 1800s, and it is predicted that this upwards trend will only continue[12], threatening islands and port cities like New Orleans[13].

1.2: Pollution

Figure 5. Sudden and immense growth of algae is known as an algae bloom. They can lead to eutrophication.

Air Pollution

Burning fossil fuels emit not only greenhouse gases, but potent air pollutants as well, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide. Overexposure to these can lead to adverse health effects, to be discussed in a later section. These particles are also attributed to multiple environmentally degrading processes such as[12]:

  • Eutrophication: Components like sulphur and nitrogen serve as nutrients for marine organisms. An overabundance of them (i.e. dissolved into the ocean) can lead to explosive growth of microorganisms such as phytoplankton and algae[12]. Their growth consumes an immense amount of oxygen, depleting the source, making it uninhabitable for other organisms moving forward.
  • Acid Rain: An overabundance of gases like carbon dioxide can undergo a chemical reaction in the atmosphere and form acid rain[14]. Upon precipitating, immense amounts can contaminate water sources, but more importantly, it causes damage to vegetation as it falls.

Water Pollution

The extraction, transportation and storage of fossil fuels poses risks of water pollution. Operations like fracking often use chemical fluids to induce high pressure in order to extract the resource. However, the high water usage as well as the residual fluids that remain are often contaminated by substances like heavy metals, salts, and radioactive materials[15]. The transportation and storage of fossil fuels has risks of leakage if not maintained properly. All of the above has the potential to pollute water sources such as groundwater aquifers, freshwater water bodies and the ocean. This leads to issues like water shortage/contamination and environmental degradation.

2. Social Implications

Figure 6. This map shows BC pipelines and Indigenous settlements. Made by WikiAuthor using open source data from the Government of BC and Canada and ArcGIS. It can be observed that multiple settlements are in very close proximity to pipelines transporting oil and gas.

Fossil fuels have been a stable source of energy and electricity since the Industrial revolution. Many industries, transportation systems and households depend on this resource. Providing 332,800 people with employment in Canada[16], the energy sector sustains many communities with income. However, there are costs beyond that of the market prices of fuel. Increased costs from environmental damage and health implications are costly and can impact marginalized communities disproportionately.

An example is the impact the fossil fuel industry has on the Indigenous Peoples of Canada. Although economic opportunities are provided, the impact fossil fuels have on the community as a whole is largely detrimental. Establishing power plant facilities disrupt traditional lifestyles on their ancestral land. Operations restricting access to hunting, fishing and gathering grounds, land and identity loss and escalating tension from internal division leads to overall harm of the communities[17]. Another important aspect is the colonial context that extracting fossil fuels has on the Indigenous people. Canada’s actions that push reconciliation would be nullified by the exploitation of the land and its resources[18], taking steps backwards rather than forwards.

3. Health Implications

Close proximity and prolonged exposure to fossil fuel emissions has been linked to a multitude of health issues. It has been reported that at least 1.6 billion people live in regions exposed to PM2.5 and other air pollutants[19], produced as a byproduct of fossil fuel usage. This is extremely detrimental, especially to those in vulnerable age groups such as children. Air pollution has been linked to around 600,000 child mortalities annually, attributed to air pollution-induced pneumonia[20].

4. Reducing Fossil Fuel Impact

4.1: Land Restoration

The land is most disturbed by processes of fossil fuel extraction. Examples like oil drilling, pipeline construction and facility development become a source of environmental pollution and destroy surrounding habitats. Though surface disturbance can be minimized, the harm caused even after operations remain detrimental. Many then turn to land restoration—replanting vegetation, replacing topsoil, and restoring the habitat[21]. However, this method is limited by financial costs (ex. Supplies and long term monitoring), lack of data availability and spatial restrictions[21]. Even if this obstacle can be addressed, the damage done by fossil fuel cannot be offset by ‘fixing’ the land once it is destroyed.

4.2: Investment into Renewable Energy

Figure 7: The Hoover Dam is one of the many dams that supply electricity in America. Though a renewable resource, dams are extremely harmful to the environment—habitat destruction, migration disruption are a few of the issues.

Renewable energy from sustainable sources such as solar, wind and hydroelectricity is also being looked into to replace fossil fuels. To implement these methods, facilities must be constructed, research must be done, and subsidies need to be invested to incentivize its usage. It is widely known to be a viable alternative. The reason why its usage is not more widespread comes down to cost, indirect pollution and reliability[22]. Initial construction and life-time maintenance is costly—convincing companies to switch is difficult; the equipment and production facilities can continue to produce pollution, not directly tied to energy production; reliability depends on geographical location[22]. For example, if a community is to fully rely on solar power, then they must be continuously exposed to solar radiation in order to produce electricity. However, sunlight is highly variable, making it less reliable than fossil fuels. Altogether, as fossil fuel has proven reliability and cost effectiveness, the switch to different energy sources is arduous.

4.3: Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration involves capturing and storing carbon dioxide to prevent emissions from happening in the first place[23]. There are natural carbon sinks such as forests and oceans, however, the amount anthropogenic processes produce far exceeds their capability to absorb carbon dioxide. Instead, carbon sequestration is implemented into technological methods. The process is composed of three main steps[23]

  1. Capture CO2 from areas of emission such as power plants, refinery plants, or industrial sites
  2. Transport the CO2 safely
  3. Inject the CO2 underground into porous rock that holds the gas, under an impervious layer to trap it[23].

This captured CO2 can be used for oil and gas reservoir recovery or stored permanently. In the US, around 54% of industrial CO2 was injected into oil reservoirs to increase oil extraction in the future[24]. Although seemingly ideal, this method has issues as well. The captured carbon is used to extract more oil and does not fundamentally address the problem of fuel overuse; not many can implement this strategy long term due to its high costs (both financial and environmental)[25]; the energy required for this process is not negligible and can offset the benefits it has[26].

Conclusion

Local Connections (BC)

For electricity, BC mostly runs on hydropower, making up 89% of its electricity generation as of 2021[27]. However, energy usage is dominated by fossil fuels as industrial and transportation sectors use the most electricity—industrial plants use 48% of total energy demand while transportation uses 27%[27]. As such, a few of the actions BC is taking to reduce fossil fuel usage includes encouraging the efficiency of electric vehicles by implementing more charging stations and creating initiatives for carbon capture[28].

Connection Between Geography and Geology

Geography and geology are disciplines that are closely linked together. Geology can explain how fossil fuels are formed and where they can be found. With geography, these theories and practices can be linked to a larger picture. From how fossil fuel usage impacts the environment, its social implications, to its influence in politics, the intertwinement of these areas build a cohesive understanding of the relationships between fossil fuels, humans and Earth.

The Future of Fossil Fuels

By 2040, fossil fuel usage is predicted to increase by two-thirds[29]. This trend is likely linked to higher living standards and economic growth. Though it puts strain on the fossil fuel industry and the planet’s well-being, it is unlikely to stagnate. The only viable solution is to address how we use fossil fuels in a cleaner manner, or to uncouple from it entirely.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 University of British Columbia. (2026). Module 3: What's the fuss about fossil fuels? - The formation of oil and gas. Canvas @ UBC. https://canvas.ubc.ca
  2. ↑ University of British Columbia. (2026). Module 3: What's the fuss about fossil fuels? - The formation of coal. Canvas @ UBC. https://canvas.ubc.ca
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Panchuk, Karla (2019). ""Geological Resources"". Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition. Saskatchewan: BCcampus.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Montgomery, S. L. (2026, April 7). Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/why-the-persian-gulf-has-more-oil-and-gas-than-anywhere-else-on-earth-279303
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Sorkhabi, R. (2010, August 7). Why so much oil in the Middle East? GEO ExPro. https://geoexpro.com/why-so-much-oil-in-the-middle-east/
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Ibrahim, A., (2020, August 1). Thirty years on, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait still haunts region. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/1/thirty-years-on-iraqs-invasion-of-kuwait-still-haunts-region
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Jamal, U. (2026, February 23). Gulf countries back Kuwait’s sovereignty after Iraq draws new boundaries. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/2/23/gcc-states-back-kuwait-maritime-sovereignty-after-iraq-draws-new-boundaries
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Earle, Steven (2019). "Climate Change". Physical Geology. Victoria: BCcampus. ISBN 978-1-77420-028-5.
  9. ↑ Earle, Steven (2015). "Weathering, Sediment, and Soil". Physical Geology. Victoria: BCcampus. ISBN 978-1-989623-71-8.
  10. ↑ CCAC (2023, Dec 5). "Fossil Fuels Sector Solutions". Climate & Clean Air Coalition. Retrieved 2026 June. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  11. ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2025, Jan 7). "Nitrous Oxide Emissions". US EPA. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Bertrand, Savannah (2021, Dec 17). "Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels". Environmental and Energy Study Institute. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  13. ↑ NASA (2023). "Which areas of the world will be most affected by sea-level rise over the next century, and after that?". NASA. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  14. ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2025, Mar 4). "What is Acid Rain?". US EPA. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  15. ↑ Ted-ED; Nacamulli, Mia (2017, Jul 13). "How does fracking work? - Mia Nacamulli". Youtube. Retrieved June, 2026. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  16. ↑ Natural Resources Canada (2026). Energy Fact Book Spring 2026 Edition. Government of Canada. p. 9. ISBN 23705027 Check |isbn= value: length (help).
  17. ↑ Wright, Laura; White, Jerry P. (2012, Aug). "Developing Oil and Gas Resources On or Near Indigenous Lands in Canada: An Overview of Laws, Treaties, Regulations and Agreements". International Indigenous Policy Journal. 3: 1–18 – via JSTOR. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. ↑ Myette, Ella; Riva, Mylène (2021, June). "Surveying the complex social-ecological pathways between resource extraction and Indigenous Peoples' health in Canada: A scoping review with a realist perspective". The Extractive Industries and Society. 8 – via Science Direct. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ↑ Harvey, Fiona (2025, Sep 24). "This article is more than 8 months old Fossil fuel burning poses threat to health of 1.6bn people, data shows". The Guardian. Retrieved 2026, June. line feed character in |title= at position 39 (help); Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  20. ↑ Perera, Frederica (2017, Dec). "Pollution from Fossil-Fuel Combustion is the Leading Environmental Threat to Global Pediatric Health and Equity: Solutions Exist". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15 – via MDPI. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Han, Huiqing; Yang, Guangbin; Ma, Geng; Jian, Yuanju (2025, Nov 20). "Impact of abandoned land restoration on ecosystem services: a systematic review". Environmental Reviews. 33: 1–14 – via Canadian Science Publishing. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Inspire Clean Energy (2020, Oct 30). "Why Don't We Use More Renewable Energy". Inspire Clean Energy. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 United States Environmental Protection Agency (2012). "Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration: Overview". US EPA. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  24. ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2015, Oct 2). "Supply, Underground Injection, and Geologic Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide". US EPA. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  25. ↑ Burger, Johannes; Nöhl, Julian; Seiler, Jan; Gabrielli, Paolo; Oeuvray, Pauline; Becattini, Viola; Reyes-Lúa, Adriana; Riboldi, Luca; Sansavini, Giovanni (2024, Feb). "Environmental impacts of carbon capture, transport, and storage supply chains: Status and the way forward". International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control. 132 – via Science Direct. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ↑ David Suzuki Foundation. "Why carbon capture and storage is not a real climate solution". David Suzuki Foundation. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Canada Energy Regulator (2021). "British Columbia Energy Profile". Canada Energy Regulator. Retrieved June, 2026. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  28. ↑ Clean BC (2023). "Transportation - Clean BC". Clean BC. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  29. ↑ Energy Transitions Commision (2017, Mar 1). "Research paper: The Future of Fossil Fuels". Energy Transitions Commission. Retrieved 2026, June. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)


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