Course:EOSC270/2024/Group 5 - The Impact of Noise Pollution on Lobsters

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What is Noise Pollution?

Effects of noise of offshore oil and gas operations on marine species - an introductory assessment

Noise pollution, a byproduct of modern industrialization, spreads through our environment with disruptive sounds, affecting both human and animal well-being. Considering it is a relatively recent notion, definitions are sparse and nuanced. Scholars often find discomfort in rigidly defining noise pollution, as defining its boundaries dictates the strategies for mitigating noise as a pollutant[1]. That being said, it is generally referred to as unwanted sound that can negatively impact human or animal life. In the realm of marine ecosystems, environmental noise pollution encompasses any undesired sound originating from human activities that obstructs or distorts marine animals' ability to perceive natural oceanic sounds.[2] Underwater noise propagation is controlled by physical factors, such as absorption, and reflection or refraction, and is also a function of depth and topography, and is frequency-dependent.[2]

There are two primary types of noise pollution: acute and chronic.[3] Acute noise pollution is characterized by short bursts of high-intensity sounds, often arising from activities such as pile driving, underwater blasting, active sonar, and seismic operations.[3] In contrast, chronic noise pollution involves prolonged exposure to lower-intensity sounds, typified by the continuous hum of machinery on ships and vessels.[3] Both forms can have profound effects on ecosystems, disrupting natural communication patterns and causing stress and hearing loss in marine life.[4]

Human Activities That Cause Noise Pollution

Human activities are the primary drivers of noise pollution. From bustling tourism to industrial zones, the clamor of human civilization reverberates across landscapes and seascapes. Industrial machinery, construction activities, road traffic, aircraft, and maritime vessels are all significant contributors to noise pollution as a whole. Marine anthropogenic noise can be produced during route clearance, trenching and backfilling, cable and cable protection introduction by the vessels and tools used during these operations, sound from cargo ships, sonar, seismic testing, drilling, pile drivers, recreational holiday ships, recreational boats, and construction activity, that is predominantly found near shore where the construction of bridges, ports, wind farms and other buildings occurs.[2] Seismic exploration devices, mainly air guns, are used all over the world for undersea geological surveys and geophysical studies such as oil and gas exploration and seabed mapping.[5]

Shipping Traffic in the New York Bight

History of Noise Pollution

The history of noise pollution dates back to the dawn of industrialization, but its prevalence has grown dramatically in the last century. With the advent of steam engines, factories, and mass transportation, urban areas became epicenters of noise pollution. As populations grew and technology advanced, the problem spread far beyond city limits, encroaching upon once-remote natural habitats. Today, noise pollution pervades every corner of the globe, from bustling metropolises to remote wilderness areas, and even the depths of the ocean. In 1995, the U.S. set the first thresholds for levels of sound beyond which marine mammals should not be exposed to prevent “injury” or “behavioural harassment” under the Marine Mammal Protection Act.[6] Since then, various other countries have joined the effort by providing research and legal guidelines for activities such as seismic surveys.

Scope of the Issue

Since 1950, human-generated noise in the ocean has surged at an alarming rate, increasing by more than 3 decibels per decade.[7] This rapid escalation poses a grave threat to marine life, disrupting communication, navigation, and feeding behaviors in a wide range of species. From whales and dolphins to fish and invertebrates, the effects of anthropogenic noise pollution reverberate throughout marine ecosystems, undermining their health and resilience. Addressing this escalating crisis requires concerted efforts to mitigate noise pollution and preserve the acoustic integrity of our oceans for future generations.

How Does Noise Pollution Impact Marine Ecosystems?

Marine noise pollution impacts many different organisms and ecosystems. Most studies are done on marine mammals, fish, and invertebrates, but the negative impacts of noise pollution on all of these organisms have impacts on their respective ecosystems. We will specifically analyze the impacts on lobsters, which are distributed in various ecosystems across the world. Lobsters are present in every ocean, as well as some freshwater and brackish environments. Their diet changes with location, depending on prey availability and ecosystem types.

Furry lobster (Palinurellus gundlachi) in its burrow.

Ecological Importance of Lobsters

Lobsters are essential components to various marine ecosystems across the world. Lobsters are classified as opportunistic feeders, which means that they will consume whatever prey is available to them. This accounts for their very wide diet range which includes small crustaceans, various red and green algae, bivalves, and sponges.[8] Thus, this is why many lobster populations occur in areas such as coral reefs which support a diverse range of natural prey.[8] The role of lobsters in this environment also directly benefits coral reefs, as lobsters feed on primary producers controlling their populations and preventing reefs from being smothered by algae or urchin overgrowth. Moreover, their position in the middle of the food-chain is crucial, they control populations of primary produced, but also act as essential prey for larger marine predators. Thus, they unintentionally contribute to a vitally important balance between trophic levels. Furthermore, a common behaviour of lobsters is to create burrows or cervices in the sea floor which are used as protection during the early benthic phase of their life cycle.[9] Such burrows and crevices can also be of benefit to other marine organisms such as small fish and invertebrates, which can use these spaces as microhabitats for shelter or nesting. Therefore, lobsters benefit various other species, so understanding how they are affected by noise pollution will not only protect lobsters but also entire ecosystems in which they reside.

Impacts of Noise Pollution on Lobsters

Water vibrating at a frequency of about 50Hz.

Particle Motion on Marine Invertebrates

Invertebrates such as lobsters are particularly impacted by the particle motion component of sound, unlike mammals who detect sound through pressure. Particle motion is the oscillation of water particles caused by sound waves, which are detectable by invertebrates because they lack gas filled organs such as swim bladders.[10] Lobsters are particularly affected by chronic noise pollution, which is one of the two main types of noise pollution. A study by Jézéquel et al. found that intraspecific communication between lobsters is done at a frequency usually ranging from 80-120Hz, which means that lobsters are especially impacted by chronic noise pollution occurring at this frequency.[10] There are many effects of particle motion caused by noise pollution on lobsters, some of which include acoustic masking, behavioural changes and morphological damage.

Acoustic Masking

Adult European Lobster (Homarus gammarus)

Studies have shown that European lobsters (Homarus gammarus) are experiencing acoustic masking, as noise pollution, such as that created by marine traffic, is masking lobster signals, and buzzing sounds, which are used for both intraspecific and interspecific communication.[11][10] As a result of a lack of communication, lobsters were seen to increase their call rates, as a vocal compensation, which consequently increases their energy consumption and can result in a lower reproductive success.[11] Furthermore, lobsters use sounds in order to detect and deter fish predators, thus acoustic masking could impede this ability, leading to an increase in lobster mortality rate from predation.[11][12] Moreover, buzzing sounds of lobsters play a critical role in communicating dominance status between male lobsters during agnostic encounters.[10][11] This is a crucial behaviour of lobsters as only dominant male lobsters gain access to females for reproduction.[11] Therefore, by reducing intraspecific communication of lobsters due to noise pollution, it can cause additional fighting between males, as dominance status is not communicated, further increasing energy consumption as well as the risk of injury, lowering reproductive success of lobsters.[11]  

Behavioural Changes

A study has proven that low frequency noise pollution is influencing behavioural changes of early-life stages of European lobsters.[12] The study was carried out in the North Sea, where low frequency noises such as maritime transport and offshore wind turbines are present.[12] It was found that young of the year (YOY) lobsters were decreasing their antipredator behaviours and increasing their exploration behaviours under low frequency noise pollution and predator presence, which correlated to increased mortality in juvenile lobsters that spent less time hiding.[12] This is particularly concerning for the commercially valuable species, as YOY lobsters’ survival relies on their ability to find suitable shelter to protect themselves from predators.[12]

Although it is not certain why noise pollution is causing these changes in behaviour for YOY lobsters, there are a few hypotheses. One hypothesis is called the ‘distracted prey hypothesis,’ where the noise pollution is redirecting the lobster’s attention, distracting them, thus preventing the lobsters from responding to predatory threat.[12] Another hypothesis is that changes in behaviour are as a result of acoustic masking. The low frequency noise pollution overlaps with lobster signals used for predator detection and buzzing sounds, thus their predatory detection may be ineffective under noise pollution making the lobsters believe there are no predators nearby, even if they are present.[11][12]

Adult Norwegian lobster (Nephrops norvegicus)

Changes in sediment dwelling behaviour have also been seen in Norwegian lobsters (Nephrops norvegicus), as a result of both continuous and impulsive pile driving broadband sound.[13][14] Norway lobsters experienced reduced burying behaviours as well as suppressed locomotion activity and bioirrigation behaviour.[13][14] Bioirrigation is a process where benthic organisms such as lobsters, exchange sediment porewaters with the overlying water column both actively or passively, which consequently plays a critical role in sediment biogeochemistry, with oxygen rich waters being brought to low oxygen or anoxic sediments.[15] Thus, bioirrigation can contribute to the ventilation of sediments, allowing aerobic degradation, as well as enhancing nutrient cycling.[15] Due to this, the Norway lobster is considered to be an ecosystem engineer, by mixing the upper sediment.[13] Therefore, reduced bioirrigation by lobsters as a result of noise pollution could alter the habitat, particularly in sediments for other species, having a wider impact on the ecosystem, not just for lobsters.[13]

Damage to Statocysts and Righting Reflexes

A 2019 field-based study found that the effect of anthropogenic noise, like seismic surveying, causes significant damage to the sensory hairs of lobster statocysts, which in turn, impaired their righting reflex.[16] Seismic surveying is a type of acute noise pollution that uses air guns to produce intense sound waves underwater to look for crude oil, natural gas, and minerals. These sounds can be detected thousands of kilometers away from the source in the open ocean [17] and can penetrate up to 100 kilometers below the ocean floor.[18] This noise is particularly damaging to statocysts, located on the head of lobsters, which are a mechanosensory organ in invertebrates responsible for the detection of gravity, position, and movement.[16] Using scanning electron microscopy, researchers found that air gun exposure, equivilent to a seismic survey array passing at approximately 100-500 meters range, significantly damaged the statolith hairs inside the statocyst of lobsters. This had long-term impacts on lobsters with damage lasting up to a year after exposure to noise pollution, and after molting which was unexpected since the statocyst is shed during the molt process.

The neuronal input from the statocyst is critical for controlling the righting response of lobsters which is a reflex that coordinates various appendages like the limbs, tail, pleopods, and uropods.[16] Righting reflexes enable the lobsters to flip right-side up when placed on their backs which is essencial to escape predation. This reflex and was found to be significantly slower in lobster’s with exposure to air guns which has concerning implications for the Lobster's ability to escape and survive predators. Overall, the study added to the existing evidence that marine invertebrates are sensitive to anthropogenic noise and highlights the need for understanding long-term ecological impacts to protect lobster populations and ecosystems.

Increased Intermoult Duration

Adult Southern Rock Lobster (Jasus edwardsii)

In a 2020 study by the same researchers, it was found that noise pollution from seismic surveys significantly impacted the intermoult cycles of puerulus and juvenile Southern Rock Lobsters (Jasus edwardsii) exposed up to 500 meters from the source.[7] Moulting is a stressful process where lobsters and other decapod crustaceans shed their old shells while simultaneously absorbing water in order to expand their body size.[19] The intermoult duration, or time between moults, is correlated to a lobsters rate of development, meaning longer intermoult periods can indicate decreased growth rates.[7] The study by Day et al. (2020) found that the intermoult duration significantly increased with exposure to air gun signals which highlights the potential for slowed development, growth, and physiological stress. Although this was not found to increase mortality rates, this is concerning because of the potential to harm lobsters in their early life history stages.

What is the Extent of the Problem?

The effects of marine noise pollution have been studied on more common organisms such as fish, invertebrates, and marine mammals, but the effects on other organisms still aren't fully researched yet. There are a wide range of effects that have been studied, some of which include sound masking causing decreases in communication abilities, and changes in hormone levels which can impact reproduction and mating.

Ocean traffic and ships account for about 75% of all marine noise pollution.[20] What this means is that by reducing the amount of ships and ocean traffic, the impacts of noise pollution can also be reduced. The problem is that ocean traffic accounts for about 90% of global shipments, and global shipping is expected to triple by 2050, meaning noise pollution in the ocean is just going to get worse.[21] In fact, in the last 50 years noise along coastal highways has increased by 32%.[21] Even one loud noise can have negative impacts on organisms in the ocean. A single event causing extreme noise pollution can be heard from thousands of kilometers away.[22] For example, noise from a seismic survey can be heard from 300,000 km2 away.[23] Some specific organisms can detect sounds from low frequency sonar used by the military up to 3.9 million km2 away.[23] These are just a few examples of noise pollution and its negative impacts, but there are many more that haven't been discussed or even researched. What we do know is that if the world continues progressing the way it is right now, noise pollution around the globe is going to continue increasing. The negative impacts caused by marine noise pollution are only going to get worse from here, and they are going to continue impacting ecosystems around the world.

Economical Impacts

Fishermen with Lobster Pots, Circa 1903.

According to the Fisheries and Oceans Canada, in 2021 lobsters brought in $550M, and lobsters were one of the top 3 exports out of all fish and seafood from Canada.[24] In the past 10 years lobster farming mortality has increased from 30-50% because of increases in diseases, reduction in water quality, pollution, etc. This has caused an annual loss of 30 million US dollars.[25] These are just a couple of examples from North America, but lobsters are important for economies all over the globe. For example, in Australia lobster farming is worth about $200-$400 million.[26] So not only are lobsters ecologically important, they are also an important food source for coastal people, help create jobs for people in coastal areas, and are important to economies all over the globe.

Potential Solutions

In order to reduce or eliminate the impacts of noise pollution on lobsters and other marine species, we must treat this issue with the same urgency we would any other type of pollution. The most effective solution would involve a direct approach to tackle the problem at the source, reducing the noise globally.

A good start to mitigation would be expanded implementation of Marine Protection Zones (MPA’s) which prevent most types of noise pollution. In recent years, there has been prevalent focus marine spatial planning technologies, which use ocean zonation as a means to manage the distribution of damaging anthropogenic activities.[27] Furthermore, governments and industries should increase investment and prioritization of source reduction technologies. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has outlined various strategies and quieting methods to be used and implemented in their technical guidelines on marine noise pollution.[28] Additionally, strategic rerouting of shipping channels which avoid critical habitats or biodiversity species may be beneficial in reducing the risks for specifically vulnerable species. Operating shipment vessels at lower cruising speeds may also have some benefits in reducing noise levels.[27]

Therefore, there is no doubt that the impacts of noise pollution critically harm not only lobsters but a multitude or marine organisms. Thus, protecting these species depends on the various noise reduction and mitigation strategies humans choose to implement.

References

  1. ↑ Murphy, E.; King, E. A. (2014). Environmental noise pollution: Noise mapping, public health, and policy. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 3–4. doi:10.1016/C2012-0-13587-0. ISBN 9780128201008.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Chahouri, Abir; Elouahmani, Nadia; Ouchene, Hanan (2022). "Recent progress in marine noise pollution: A thorough review". Chemosphere. 291, part 2: Article 132983. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132983 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Di Franco, E.; Pierson, P.; Di Iorio, L.; Calo, A.; Cottalorda, J. M.; Derijard, B.; Franco, A. Di; Galve, A.; Guibolloni, M. (2022). "Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A review". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 159: 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  4. ↑ Peng, C.; Zhao, X.; Liu, G. (2015). "Noise in the Sea and Its Impacts on Marine Organisms". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 12(10): 12304–12323. doi:10.3390/ijerph121012304 – via National Library of Medicine.
  5. ↑ Slabbekoorn, H. (2010). "A noisy spring: the impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish". Trends Ecol Evol. 7: 419–27. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2010.04.005 – via PubMed.
  6. ↑ Dolman, J; Jasny, Michael (2015). "Evolution of Marine Noise Pollution Management". Aquatic Mammals. 41(4): 357–374. doi:10.1578/AM.41.4.2015.357 – via Reseach Gate.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Day, R. D.; Fitzgibbon, Q. P.; McCauley, R. D.; Baker, K. B.; Semmens, J. M. (2022). "The impact of seismic survey exposure on the righting reflex and moult cycle of Southern Rock Lobster (Jasus edwardsii) puerulus larvae and juveniles". Environmental pollution (1987). 309: 119699–119699. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119699 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Phillips, B. F.; Wahle, R. A.; Ward, T. J. (2013). "Lobsters as part of marine ecosystems – A Review. Lobsters:". Biology, Management, Aquaculture and Fisheries: 1–35. doi:10.1002/9781118517444.ch1 – via Wiley.
  9. ↑ Wickins, J. F.; Roberts, J. C.; Heasman, M. S. (1996). "Within‐burrow behaviour of juvenile European lobsters homarus gammarus (L.)". Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology. 28(4): 229–253. doi:10.1080/10236249609378994 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Jézéquel, Y.; Jones, I. T.; Bonnel, J.; Chauvaud, L.; Atema, J.; Mooney, T. A. (2021). "Sound detection by the American lobster (Homarus americanus)". The Company of Biologists. 224(6). doi:10.1242/jeb.240747 – via PubMed Central.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Jézéquel, Y.; Bonnel, J.; Chauvaud, L. (2021). "Potential for acoustic masking due to shipping noise in the European Lobster (Homarus Gammarus)". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 173: 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112934 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 Leiva, L.; Scholz, S.; Giménez, L.; Boersma, M.; Torres, G.; Krone, R.; Tremblay, N. (2021). "Noisy waters can influence young-of-year lobsters' substrate choice and their antipredatory responses". Environmental Pollution. 291: 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118108 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Tidau, S.; Briffa, M. (2016). "Review on behavioral impacts of aquatic noise on crustaceans". Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics. 27: 1–14. doi:10.1121/2.0000302 – via AIP Publishing. line feed character in |title= at position 49 (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Solan, M.; Hauton, C.; Godbold, J. A.; Wood, C. L.; Leighton, T. G.; White, P. (2016). "Anthropogenic sources of underwater sound can modify how sediment-dwelling invertebrates mediate ecosystem properties". Scientific Reports. 6(1). doi:10.1038/srep20540 – via PubMed Central.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Borger, E. D.; Tiano, J.; Braeckman, U.; Ysebaert, T.; Soetaert, K. (2020). "Biological and biogeochemical methods for estimating bioirrigation: A case study in the Oosterschelde estuary". Biogeosciences. 17(6): 1701–1715. doi:10.5194/bg-17-1701-2020 – via European Geosciences Union.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Day, R. D.; McCauley, R. D.; Fitzgibbon, Q. P.; Hartmann, K.; Semmens, J. M. (2019). "Seismic air guns damage rock lobster mechanosensory organs and impair righting reflex". Proc Biol Sci. B 286. doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.1424.
  17. ↑ Day, R. D. (September 11, 2013). "WHALES STOP SINGING AND ROCK LOBSTERS LOSE THEIR BALANCE: HOW SEISMIC SURVEYS CAN HARM MARINE LIFE". Institute for Marine & Antarctic Studies. Retrieved March 20th, 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  18. ↑ Ogden, L. E. (2014). "Quieting Marine Seismic Surveys". BioScience. 64 (8): 752. doi:10.1093/biosci/biu097 – via Oxford Academic.
  19. ↑ "Life Cycle & Reproduction- Lobster Institute". The University of Maine. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
  20. ↑ Jalkanen, J.; Johansson, L.; Andersson, M. H.; Majamaki, E.; Sigray, P. (2022). "Underwater noise emissions from ships during 2014–2020". Environmental Pollution. 311. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119766 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 McCauley, D. J. (2023). "The future of whales in our Anthropocene ocean". Science Advances. 9(25). doi:10.1126/sciadv.adi7604 – via PubMed Central.
  22. ↑ Gillespie, A. (2010). "Noise Pollution, the Oceans, and the Limits of International Law". Yearbook of International Environmental Law. 21(1): 114–139. doi:10.1093/yiel/yvr005 – via ProQuest.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Weilgart, L. S. (2007). "The impacts of anthropogenic ocean noise on cetaceans and implications for management". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 85: 1091–1116. doi:10.1139/Z07-101 – via Canadian Science Publishing.
  24. ↑ "Canada's Fish and Seafood Trade in 2021: Overview". Government of Canada. Retrieved April 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  25. ↑ Hai, A. T. N. (February 2020). "Economic-environmental trade-offs in marine aquaculture: The case of lobster farming in Vietnam". Aquaculture. 516. doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2019.734593 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  26. ↑ Reid, C.; Caputi, N.; de Lestang, S.; Stephenson, P. (2013). "Assessing the effects of moving to maximum economic yield effort level in the western rock lobster fishery of Western Australia". Marine Policy. 39: 303–313. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2012.11.005 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Simmonds, M. P.; Dolman, S. J.; Jasny, M.; Parsons, E. C. M.; Weilgart, L. (2014). "Marine Noise Pollution - Increasing Recognition But Need for More Practical Action". Journal of Ocean Technology. 9(1): 71–90 – via WBI Studies Repository.
  28. ↑ Dolman, S. J.; Jasny, M. (2015). "Evolution of Marine Noise Pollution Management". Aquatic Mammals. 41(4): 357–374. doi:10.1578/AM.41.4.2015.357 – via ResearchGate.
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