Course:EOSC270/2023/Impacts of Water Sports and Recreation on Marine Ecosystems
Background and Context
Water sports and recreational activities provide social, economic and physical benefits[1][2]. However, they can also cause significant risks to marine ecosystems by impacting the biodiversity, water quality, and habitat integrity[3]. The cumulative effect of activities such as windsurfing/kitesurfing, boating, wakeboarding, surfing and scuba diving can lead to pollution, damage to habitats and disturbances to wildlife. Effective management strategies could reduce these impacts from giving additional stress to marine ecosystems that are already vulnerable to climate change and other human impacts.
This page explores the relationship between water sports and marine ecosystems. Both the direct and the indirect consequences of human recreation on marine ecosystems are reviewed. This page also reports the existing and potential solutions to diminish the effect of these impacts. The marine ecosystems that are included consist of all coastal ecosystems that might be affected. Coastal ecosystems comprise estuaries, reefs, intertidal zones, lagoons and vegetated habitats (seagrass meadows, kelp forests, salt marshes, mangrove forests and coastal wetlands)[4].
By providing an overview of research and case studies, this page aims to inform and promote responsible interaction with marine ecosystems.
Impacts of Water Sports and Recreation
Windsurfing/kitesurfing
Disturbing wildlife
On a visual aspect, windsurfs and any part of the kiteboards that are close to the water surface can be perceived as large threatening objects by marine life. The kites of kiteboarders are also threatening the flying wildlife, by either scaring them away or by putting them in danger due to unpredictable and rapid direction and altitude changes. Furthermore, the shadow of the kite can perturb marine animals that can become more stressed out, thinking that the large moving is a surface predator. On the auditory perspective, the crashing of windsurf sails or kites on the water surface produce large underwater noise, and this is accompanied by the vibrations caused by fins [5].
In terms of visual disturbances, different groups of animals are affected. For fish in the UK for example, the only species that is believed to be affected by windsurfing and kitesurfing is the Basking shark. This is because its foraging and courtship occur in spring and summer, which is the peak season of wind-powered sports. If these sharks are repeatedly disturbed by such activities, they will most likely end up moving away and have their foraging disturbed. On the other hand, seals are the marine mammals with the greatest risk of being impacted by windsurfers and kitesurfers, even if this risk remains very limited. Hauled out seals (when they are resting on land) are the most prone to this disturbance. Finally, birds are visually impacted via the sails’ erratic movements, which are not common to other “normal” human activities to which birds are now used to. Changes in behavior can be seen in bird communities that are inhabiting beaches: the birds are more vigilant, walk less frequently, and are ready to launch their flight response. These changes can also, in the worse case, lead to a decrease in breeding productivity due to overstressed parents that can’t hatch their eggs or raise their chicks properly, or a weight loss in some individuals [6].
Because these sports are practiced during high wind periods, it is also important to consider that the marine fauna is already stressed out because of the harsh living conditions - birds, for example, have got limited flying abilities. Other animals may also wish to limit their movements to a bare minimum, due to the cooler temperatures produced by these windy conditions, in order to save up energy. Having on top of these difficult conditions an extra stressor caused by wind-powered water sports can increase the physiological stress, the vigilance level and the rapidity of the escape response. How the fauna is affected depends on numerous factors, one of them being how used they are to the stimulus [5].
The common impacts on local fauna near windsurfing/kitesurfing spots are a decrease in physical condition linked with a decrease in reproductive fitness and a change in species distribution and abundance. These are classified as “direct disturbances”. An example of how windsurfing/kitesurfing could decrease reproductive fitness would be that the disturbances make birds leave their nest temporarily to escape from a perceived danger, or, in the worse scenario, completely abandon their nests, leading to a failure in offspring survival [5].
In this direct disturbance category, kitesurfing has by far the most impacts, where entire flocks of birds were observed to change flying paths and abandon entire habitats - this is aggravated when the spot is located at a migration route accompanied with breeding grounds, as in the Wadden Sea for example [7]. Other types of disturbances, such as biophysical disturbances, are due to changes in habitat caused by these sports [5].
Collisions with wildlife
It is common for kiteboarders to sail in shallow waters, and added to the fact that they cannot control their directions and speed as much as motorized crafts, this increases the risk of collision with wildlife. Animals such as turtles, rays and other marine mammals that move relatively slowly are in greater risk of impact, especially in these shallow waters where they can’t dive down [5].
Substrate disruption
Biophysical disturbance is another impact of fins and boards, but this time on the seabed. Indeed, the aquatic vegetation is at risk (as well as seagrass and macroalgae), because they can be easily damaged, but organisms residing in sediments such as invertebrates are also affected. On land, kites can disturb sand dunes and land vegetation, for example by forming ruts. This in turn disrupts the nests and feeding grounds of birds. In terms of substrate, the kitesurfers sailing in shallow waters are prone to disrupt the sediments, especially when they are beginners and stay in the water for a long time. This disturbance leads to an increase in turbidity but can also lead to habitat fragmentation.
Lastly, the intertidal substrate can be disrupted by kitesurfers and windsurfers gearing up on the beach during low tide. This is also true for the beach accesses that are usually not well marked, or that are produced by tramping sailors, and could lead to unwanted damage to vegetation and habitats [5].
Transporting pests
It is common that larvae or propagules are carried around by wind-powered crafts such as windsurfs and kitesurfs. Whilst they usually aren’t at the origin of the pest’s arrival in a new ecosystem, they can contribute to their spread. This can also occur with unwashed gear, that is transported from spot to spot, and can cause propagation the next time it’s used (eg. wetsuits, boots) [5].
Boating
Anchoring
Setting anchor automatically leads to the destruction of the seafloor. The Posidonia seagrass, for example, can have multiple shoots being destroyed over an anchoring cycle. Other substrates such as corals and red algae beds are greatly damaged with anchors and chains. Furthermore, areas where rental boats are common suffer more from this impacts, as the sailors are less experienced with the local flora and fauna, and often ignore where exactly they are mooring. This impact is also greater in places where there aren’t enough pre-existing mooring anchors [8].
Engines
Even though sailing boats do not tend to use their engines much, there still are risks associated with propellers and the high speed they can gain while motoring.
A first impact is the threat to surface animals, or any animal that cannot move fast enough to prevent collision with surrounding boats. Another impact from using engines is the noise disturbance, which is frequent in coasts where sailing boats are anchoring or doing small distance trips. This has a large impact on the marine fauna, leading to behavioral changes and communication disturbance among fish. Engine noise can also reduce their awareness, for those which use sound and vibration to detect prey and predators. Other species use sound for mating; for those fish, an increase in engine noises can have deleterious effects on their reproduction and population dynamics. Marine mammals are also affected by noise pollution - various behavioral changes such as increased group cohesion, longer dive times, change of paths have been observed by many researchers [8].
Sailing boats are also prone to have fuel and oil leaks, directly or via bilge waters (waste water from engine rooms). These unauthorized fuel releases are highly toxic for the marine ecosystems via genetic and membrane lipids modifications, and can even reach back to humans via fish consumptions [8][9].
Black and grey waters
Black waters are the toilet wastes of boats and grey waters are from facilities, such as shower and dishes waters. Even if black water release in marine waters is an environmental aberration, due to its harmful bacterial and viral contents, there is still no regulations to day [8].
Grey waters are mostly released by larger yachts and cruise ships rather than small sailing boats, but are nonetheless highly toxic, due to the large amount of chemicals that they contain. These contaminants can in turn affect shellfish, or cause the proliferation of toxic microorganisms or algae, causing algal blooms that can then lead to eutrophication. Other impacts could be the soap particles that prevent filtering organisms from feeding, which leads to their death. Part of grey waters is made of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which accumulate especially in higher trophic levels, and end up being in the marine organisms that we consume. POPs have been found to have negative impacts on human health, for example at the endocrine level [8].
Antifouling paints
Another impact that sailing boats have on the environment that is perhaps less obvious is the degradation of antifouling paints. These paints, used to keep hulls clean from attaching organisms like barnacles and algae, contain TBT, which is a highly toxic molecule that gets dissolved in the water. Other antifouling contents such as zinc and copper can also accumulate in marine organisms, causing toxicity [8][9].
Something to consider under the theme of antifouling paints is their role as a vector for exotic species. Indeed, it is common for sailor to unawaringly transport foreign species into new marine ecosystems, which can lead to invasion new species and ecosystem disruption. Example of such carried species can be polychaetes and algae [8].
Other minor impacts
Finally, sailors can have other, smaller impacts than the ones previously discussed. These involve animal feeding from sailors. Marine mammals are affected the most, especially dolphins that can eat baits on fishing hooks for example. Furthermore, entanglement in fishing lines is a common threat for these animals, which have a decreased human fear and put themselves in danger. Animals feeding can also lead to aggressive behavior towards humans, to try and get food [8].
Another minor impact is the light emission from anchored boats at night. This impacts species that are sensitive to daylight patterns, and especially their young ones, such as turtle hatchlings, that do phototaxis. Artificial lights, in this case, can disorient them and can lead to fatal behavioral changes. Nocturnal birds such as petrels can also be affected, where fledglings can once again be disoriented or attracted by artificial lights during their first flight. Light can also lead to changes in circadian rhythms of some species, and can also inhibit sexual maturation in some fish. Other impacts on fish are disruption of visual signals and of resource gathering [8].
Wakeboarding
Wakeboarding has got many effect on marine ecosystems, especially lake ecosystems, where this sport is usually practiced.
Pests
A common way to introduce invasive species into now ecosystems is through ballast water. Compared to wind-powered crafts that usually help with the spread of such species, wake boats are contributing to the initial exposure of these pests to lake ecosystems by having contaminated ballast water that they release. This is very concerning for the local ecosystems, where the invasive species can have drastic effects on local food webs and habitats. This can lead to a reduction of biodiversity, and of the collapse of food chains [10][11].
Aggravated erosion
Frequent wake boat passage increases the frequency of wakes, which over the long term leads to an increase in erosion due to increased wave action. This can lead to habitat destruction and an increase in nutrient runoff in lakes, exposing them to the risk of eutrophication [10][11].
Effects on submerged plants
The wake of the boats as well as the turbulences from the propellers and the direct damage caused by physical contact with the aquatic flora leads to the destruction of underwater plants. Their loss contributes to aggravated erosion and disruption of habitats. These submerged plants are also key species at the base of lake food webs - their loss is affecting many other lake species, at all trophic levels. Lastly, some plants such as the Wild Rice can have an important cultural significance, which will be also impacted by its damage from wakeboarding recreation [10].
Resuspension of lake sediments
Because of the large size of some wake boats, it is common for them to resuspend bottom sediments, which in turn decreases the quality and clarity of the waters. This mixing of sediments can also reintroduce nutrients that were long-buried within the sedimental layers, such as phosphorus, which, when reintroduced to the ecosystem, boosts algal growth. This, in turn, can lead to eutrophication and the collapse of the lake system [10][11].
Effects on lake fauna
The frequent passage of boats for wakeboarding greatly increases the stress levels of the lacustrine fauna. The noise of the engines and the people may stress out the birds, causing them to flee their habitats or change their nesting and feeding behavior; the increase in turbulence and propeller activity stresses the fish out with increased water vibrations, which overall can lead to migration and behavior changes. Noise can even muffle fish communication [8] for species that vocalize, which causes a shift in their daily communication period or physical damage to their sensitive inner ear. Finally, the invasive species that can be introduced via contaminated ballast waters can lead to disease or food source disruption [10].
Scuba-Diving
Scuba diving is growing in popularity and has positive benefits on the economy of coastal communities[12]. However, studies show that untrained divers exhibit a lack of knowledge about the ecological impacts of scuba diving[12][13]. Direct impacts on ecosystems from scuba diving include damaging coral reefs, breakage of coral reefs and spreading of coral disease. The breakage of coral reefs is most common and it affects soft and hard coral and tissues. The skeletal eroding band (SEB) and white syndromes (WS) are coral diseases commonly found at diving sites[13]. A three-fold increase in coral disease was found at heavily used diving sites compared to low used diving sites[14]. Coral disease accelerates the decline of corals in diving sites, by reducing the size of the coral colonies (height and diameter) and increasing biological damage[13][14]. In addition to these impacts, coral growth and reproduction were reduced. This may lead to long-term effects, including decline in coral diversity, slower coral skeleton growth and a decrease in live coral coverage[13]. Acropora is a genus of coral, which is critically endangered, that is the most impacted by divers according to reports[13].
These impacts are the result of improper use of equipment including cameras, fins, gloves and knee protectors, and inappropriate diver behavior, such as the way divers move around corals[13]. The most reported impact is damage caused by the divers’ camera equipment and their attempt to take photographs[15]. Following this, fin damage and walking on corals are the next most frequently reported impact[13]. The potential impact of cameras has increased with the development of new underwater cameras[15]. This is especially the case with cameras that have an extension pole, which can cause substantial impact on small marine fauna like sea horses[13].
Surfing
Surfing is a popular sport with mainly indirect impacts on marine ecosystems. The practice of the sport itself has not been found to have any negative impacts nor positive impacts on marine ecosystems. However, surfing might have an indirect positive impact on environmental practices that help conserve marine ecosystems. The surfing community plays a key role in environmental stewardship and policy levels. Various national and international non-governmental organisations and activists groups aid to address pollution, conservation, surf break management and coastal development. Especially Surfers Against Sewage (SAS) has influenced EU water treatment policies[16].
The sport also promotes the protection of surf breaks in popular surfing areas so that the sport continues to be practiced there. This has had indirect positive benefits for marine ecosystems as well. Surf breaks require intact bathymetry or nearshore conditions, just as the associated biodiversity does. Therefore, the protection of surf breaks could also have benefits for local biodiversity in coastal ecosystems associated with surf breaks. These ecosystems include sandy bottom, coral reef, rocky reef and kelp forests and are essential for maintaining reef-fish populations, benthic resources and infaunal communities. For example, the rocky reef ecosystems within the surf break of Roca Cuadrada, Chile, support a kelp forest ecosystem with more than 32 species of sessile macroinvertebrates, 19 mobile invertebrate species and 20 species of reef fish. Among them is the red sea urchin, which primarily inhabits rocky reef breaks[17].
On the other hand, surfing also has indirect negative impacts. Even though surfers have the potential to be environmental stewards, some lifestyle choices contradict this role. Surfers frequently rely on air travel, which is a major contributor to carbon emissions, to reach (new) destinations for their sport. Additionally, many surfers drive long distances to find a good surf spot, leading to a carbon footprint higher than the average citizen. Besides traveling, surfboards also pose environmental issues because they are made of unsustainable materials such as plastics, resins and fiberglass. However, direct impacts of the surfboards have not been investigated[16].
Current Solutions
Within-sports guidelines
Though some might argue that guidelines are not solutions, they are the easiest and—if listened to—some of the most effective ways to limit ecosystem damage due to water sports. Examples of such guidelines can be found in, for example, scuba diving, where buoyancy control and enough distance from the reef and its wildlife are very important requirements.[5] Other examples include prohibiting watersports such as surfing or swimming in particularly fragile areas (think of mangroves, for example).
Use reusable products to reduce plastic waste
This should go without saying, not only in the area of watersports but life in general: try your best to use reusable materials instead of single-use ones[8]. This will further reduce ocean pollution, both in terms of macro- and microplastics—better for the animals and the sportsmen.
Timely maintenance and modern equipment
This one is specifically for engine or boat based sports; make sure your equipment is up-to-date and efficient. This will effectively help avoid spills, leaks of damaging fluids and engine efficiency[8][5] (which is not only good for the environment, but also for your wallet). Another factor that negatively affects marine ecosystems is the extensive noise that comes with the use of heavy-duty or old boats. Having your vessel equipped with modern engines (or, even better, electric ones) vastly reduces unnecessary noise pollution.
Education to the next generations
It is no mystery that many oceanic and coastal ecosystems are under threat, largely caused by human activity. This will not rapidly change from one generation to the next, so it is of utmost importance that the new generation is being educated on how to act in order to preserve the ecosystems they like to enjoy themselves in. Education like this can and should be done on different fronts: parents should inform their kids about the consequences of their actions regarding watersports, institutions that organise or facilitate these sports should instruct their guests on how to behave in order to protect the area, and even the government could create classes or videos to inform the general public.[8]
Help your fellow sportsmen
Last but not least, make sure you not only obey the set rules, but don’t shy from correcting or helping others in a friendly manner. Rules only work if the majority act to follow them![5]
Potential Solutions
Many solutions have been implemented in the attempt to reduce impacts of aquatic sports on marine ecosystems, but more needs to be done to limit damage.
Continuing the push for electric/greener aquatic vehicles
Gas-powered vehicles contribute to more than one problem that aquatic ecosystems face, such as noise pollution from loud motors, CO2 emissions, and other heavy metal pollutants from the fuel. There would be many positive environmental benefits to switching to greener vehicles: electric boats and jet skis would be quieter, full of less toxic metals, and could reduce the overall amount of CO2 emissions by up to 10 times[18].
While physical oil and toxin pollution is commonly reported, noise pollution is an overlooked issue within marine systems. Noise pollution can cause behavioral changes in marine species, such as the Red-Mouthed Goby, which has extremely sensitive auditory organs[19]. Further research should be done to monitor effects of noise pollution on marine species, which could benefit the push for electric marine vehicles.
Designating areas for recreational use alongside marking off critical marine areas
Many lakes have buoys and other devices to warn boats of shallow waters. These devices could be used to mark off limits near critical habitat to ensure as little disruption as possible. Extremely sensitive areas could benefit from also placing natural wave mitigators such as seagrasses or other blockers that won't damage the ecosystem, and provide safer refuge from loud sounds and violent wave action caused by boats[9]. It's important to prevent recreation in shallow or critical areas, as seen by the Dee Tour Kayak event in the early 2000's in Wales, which saw around 70% of marine plants in the river where it took place damaged or killed[9].
Besides marking off and protecting critical habitats such as coral reefs, designated recreational areas should be put in place, to encourage boaters to drive in these areas, a safe distance away from any important habitat that could be impacted by loud noises or pollution.
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Sustainable Board materials
Alongside electric boats and other motor vehicles, the materials of boards could be improved to be more environmentally friendly. Modern surfboards are often made with toxins, unhealthy resins, glue, as well as plastics that easily become microplastics in the water[20]. Boards have seen an increase in sustainability, but more needs to be done to negate the impact of harmful chemicals. Until that point is reached, and possibly even after, encouraging recycling and buying used boards can help decrease the amount of toxic chemicals being manufactured and entering the ocean.
Sport specific guidelines
Each sport is slightly different, and thus comes with different environmental impacts and needs. This might mean zoning certain areas for certain sports and not others. Guidelines for sports must be carefully catered to each sport. Guidelines that are relaxed may work for surfing, but would be dangerous to the environment for boating. Rules that are too harsh on sports will cause many to disregard the rules if they feel they aren't fair. The most important aspect of changing sport guidelines and boundaries is catering to each specific sport with the athletes as well as the environment in mind.
References
- ↑ Zhang, Bing (October 2020). "The Social Benefits of Water Sports Events and Their Impact on Environmental Pollution". Management and Protection of Water Resources. 104: 111–115.
- ↑ Cugusi, Lucia; Meloni, Martina; Bergamin, Marco; Gobbo, Stefano; Di Blasio, Andrea; Conca, Corrado; Bassareo, Pier; Piras, Alessandra; Bandiera, Pasquale (August 2022). "Health effects of outdoor water sports in chronic disease: a scoping review". Sport Sciences for Health. 19: 1–15.
- ↑ Davenport, John; Davenport, Julia (March 2006). "The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: A review". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 67: 280–292.
- ↑ Elliot, Michael; Whitfield, Alan; Simenstad, Charles; Yanagi, Tetsuo (2024). Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science. Elsevier. pp. 1–11.
- ↑ Jump up to: 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 "A review of the potential effects of recreational wind-powered craft on coastal habitats and wildlife". Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 67(14), 3455–3479. 2023.
|first=missing|last=(help) Cite error: Invalid<ref>tag; name ":5" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ "Marine recreation evidence briefing: windsurfing and kitesurfing". Natural England Evidence Information Note EIN025 (First edition). 2017.
|first=missing|last=(help) - ↑ "How sustainable is surfing? | Destinations & Tips". GREEN TRAVEL BLOG. 2024, August 29.
|first=missing|last=(help); Check date values in:|date=(help) - ↑ Jump up to: 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 "Environmental impacts of increasing leisure boating activity in Mediterranean coastal waters". Ocean & Coastal Management, 209, 105693. 2021.
|first=missing|last=(help) Cite error: Invalid<ref>tag; name ":6" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ Jump up to: 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 "The Environmental Impacts of boating -- Environmental protection". Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name ":7" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ Jump up to: 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 "The Effects of wake boats on lake ecosystem Health: A literature review" (PDF). Wisconsin’s Green Fire, C. Pralle, & D. Behm (Eds.), Wisconsin’s Green Fire: 1–3. 2024.
|first=missing|last=(help) - ↑ Jump up to: 11.0 11.1 11.2 "A Literature Review of wake boat Effects on Aquatic Habitat". Michigan Department of Natural Resources, 37. 2023.
|first=missing|last=(help) - ↑ Jump up to: 12.0 12.1 Lucrezi, Serena; Saayman, Melville; van der Merwe, Peet (May 2013). "Managing diving impacts on reef ecosystems: Analysis of putative influences of motivations, marine life preferences and experience on divers' environmental perceptions". Ocean & Coastal Management. 76: 52–63.
- ↑ Jump up to: 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Sumanapala, Daminda; Dimmock, Kay; Wolf, Isabelle (July 11, 2022). "A review of ecological impacts from recreational SCUBA diving: Current evidence and future practice". Sage Journals. 23.
- ↑ Jump up to: 14.0 14.1 Lamb, Joleah; True, James; Piromvaragorn, Srisakul; Willis, Bette (October 2014). "Scuba diving damage and intensity of tourist activities increases coral disease prevalence". Biological Conservation. 178: 88–96.
- ↑ Jump up to: 15.0 15.1 Roche, Ronan; Harvey, Chloe; Harvey, James; Kavanagh, Alan; McDonald, Meaghan; Steni-Rostaing, Vivienne; Turner, John (April 2016). "Recreational Diving Impacts on Coral Reefs and the Adoption of Environmentally Responsible Practices within the SCUBA Diving Industry". Environmental Management. 58: 107–116.
- ↑ Jump up to: 16.0 16.1 Wheaton, Belinda (July 2020). "Surfing and Environmental Sustainability". Sport and the Environment. 13.
- ↑ Scheske, Christel; Rodriguez, Mara; Buttazzoni, Juan; Strong-Cvetich, Nik; Gelcich, Stefan; Monteferri, Bruno; Rodríguez, Luis; Ruiz, Manuel (October 2019). "Surfing and marine conservation: Exploring surf-break protection as IUCN protected area categories and other effective area-based conservation measures". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 29: 195–211.
- ↑ Minami, Shigeyuki (December 2003). "The Role of Developing Electric Boats in This Era" (PDF). The Journal of Asian Electric Vehicles. 1 – via University of Ottawa.
- ↑ Whitfield, A.K; Becker, A. (June 2014). "Impacts of recreational motorboats on fishes: A review". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 83 – via Science Direct.
- ↑ Wheaton, Belinda (2020). "Surfing and Environmental Stability". Sport and the Environment. 13. ISBN 978-1-78769-030-1.