Course:EOSC270/2022/Effects of Pharmaceutical Pollution on Marine Ecosystems

From UBC Wiki
The pharmaceutical industry is one of the fastest innovating industries as well as having a largely positive impact on the world. However, without proper disposal methods, the net impact of the industry could be negative on the world as a whole.  

What is the problem?

Pharmaceutical pollution also referred to as drug pollution, is a form of pollution that contaminates the environment. Pharmaceutical pollution is most prevalent in marine ecosystems as waste water runoff taints water sources. The problem is progressively becoming a larger issue as it threatens more and more organisms due to the mass adoption of modern medicinal drugs. The spread of these pollutants as the global use of pharmaceuticals increases is bound to continue compounding as the new effects pile onto the lingering effects.

A vast majority of pharmaceutical pollution can be attributed to the runoff from waste water treatment plants (WWTP) [1].WWTPs have been singled out as being the major route for how pharmaceuticals reach aquatic bodies. Medicine is cultivated in such a way that even low concentrations are highly effective, thus, even waste water from these facilities tends to cause potential problems with biochemical and physiological processes of aquatic species. These problems do not only affect marine life today but also have long-term impacts on the health of these organisms[2].

Human actions that cause the problem:

Iona Island Waste Water Treatment Plant is near Vancouver International Airport (YVR). This is the largest waste water treatment plant in BC. Over $10 Billion is being allocated to help rebuild and expand the site to be more efficient and more environmentally friendly.

The large use of pharmaceuticals that humans have become accustomed to using in their daily lives would in turn lead to more waste produced from the pharmaceutical manufacturers. Other factors such as the location of waste water treatment plants outfalls, amount of sewage outflows, the type of waste water treatment, the mixing and dilution rates used by WWTPs compound the issue [3]. Each aforementioned factor is negatively affecting marine life because of how pharmaceutical waste is handled by humans in today’s day and age. These small actions of mismanaging wastewater lead to detrimental long-lasting effects. The way we dispose of pharmaceutical waste is bound for innovation. With new innovative ideas, humans will be able to reduce the overall negative impact they are causing on marine ecosystems through their actions [4]. Furthermore, it is important to note that although pharmaceutical companies may be on the bleeding edge of innovation in health care they actually have a large negative impact on the world due to improper waste disposal. The pharmaceutical waste that enters marine ecosystems tends to have effects on all organisms. As common medicine is made to be highly effective even in low concentrations the waste of these types of substances can have large impacts on organisms in the affected ecosystems[5].

Impacts on Marine Ecosystems

Major Concerns Regarding The Presence of Pharmaceuticals in Marine Ecosystems

There are 4 major concerns regarding the presence of pharmaceuticals in marine ecosystems:

1. Persistence

The increased use of pharmaceuticals worldwide alongside the continuous manufacturing of new pharmaceuticals means that they are constantly being released into water. Pharmaceuticals also cannot be eliminated easily due to their physicochemical makeup[6]. Since they are being released into the water at a rate faster than they are being eliminated by environmental processes like biodegradation, their source never runs out so they are considered "persistent"[7].

2. Bioaccumulation/Toxicity in Marine Organisms

A lot of pharmaceuticals are able to bioaccumulate within organisms in marine ecosystems at different trophic levels. This was seen in organisms such as fish, algae, mussels and crustacean[6]. Bioaccumulation can result in the elimination of keystone species in an ecosystem which can have grave consequences.

Bioaccumulation factors for pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in wild goldish, carp from Cootes Paradise and carp from Jordan Harbour.

Even though pharmaceuticals present at low conditions in aquatic environments may not affect organisms on their own, a combination of 2 or more pharmaceuticals can have many more adverse reactions in organisms[6].

3. Antibiotic-resistance in Marine Organisms

A lot of pharmaceuticals that are released into aquatic environments are antibiotics. This was linked to an increase in antibiotic-resistance in strains of marine bacteria that were found in fish, marine mammals and seabirds living in coastal waters. Because there are antibiotic-resistant strains found in marine ecosystems, it can be concluded that pharmaceutical pollution can cause ecological shifts[3].

4. Physiological effects in Marine Organisms

Pharmaceuticals can disturb the endocrine system of marine organisms and consequently, disrupt homeostasis[6]. Endocrine disruption can lead to masculinization and feminization. Additional physiological effects on marine organisms include behavioural changes such as aggression, boldness and compulsive feeding[8].


Example of A Marine Ecosystem That Is Vulnerable to Pharmaceutical Pollution

The marine ecosystem in the Baltic Sea is particularly vulnerable to pharmaceutical pollution due to two main reasons. These reasons include:

  1. The Baltic Sea ecosystem has low biodiversity and low functional redundancy[9].
  2. The water exchange rate in the Baltic Sea is quite slow. As a result, persistent pharmaceuticals are able to stay there longer compared to other marine areas[9].

Other marine ecosystems with characteristics similar to the Baltic Sea means that they will be particularly impacted by pharmaceutical pollution.


Examples of Marine Organisms Impacted by Pharmaceutical Pollution

Specific cases where the effects of pharmaceutical pollution were seen in organisms include:

  1. Graph showing the percent of male common roach with oocytes in their testes or feminized reproductive ducts at low, medium and high concentrations of estrogen. The higher the concentration, the higher the presence of oocytes in testes/feminized reproductive ducts in male common roach.
    Male species being feminized: after exposure to oestrogen, male fish began showing signs of feminization such as the presence of vitellogenin and developing oocytes/oviducts in the testes of the male fish[10]. This ultimately led to altering sex ratios within different species.
  2. Goldfish were exposed to gemfibrozil at a relevant concentration for over 14 days and ended up with a plasma bioconcentration factor of 113[11].
  3. Eurasian perch fish had a bioaccumulation factor of 12 for oxazepam[6].
  4. Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata (algae) and Thamnocephalus platyurus (crustacean) had a bioaccumulation factor of 2.2 and 12.6 respectively for the drug carbamazepine[6].
  5. 43 pharmaceuticals, which is an alarming number, from various classes were seen in mussel tissues with bioaccumulation factors ranging from 0.66 to 32,022[6].
  6. The antiepileptic drug carbamazepine and the lipid lowering agent clofibric caused much stronger effects in Daphnia magna in contrast to both being used on their own[6].


Vulnerability of Algae and Fish

One unique characteristic of algae that make them more vulnerable are their lipid content. Their lipid content provides an “entry point for trophic transfer of lipophilic organic contaminants”[6]. Additionally, a characteristic of fish that causes them to endure the effects of pharmaceutical pollution to greater extents is that they can absorb the pharmaceuticals through their gills[12].

What is the extent of the problem?

What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred?

Rzymski and his team looked at rivers in Poland and gathered data on the concentration of numerous drugs. Those drugs were mainly cardiovascular drugs, immunosuppressive drugs, veterinary drugs, analgesic, anti-depressants, antibiotic and synthetic non-steroidal estrogens [13]. High concentrations of many of those drugs were found in rainbow trout muscle tissue as well as in sediments of fish pods. For example, 1.5 ng g-1 was collected inside a rainbow trout muscle tissue[13].

The presence of those drugs in fish bodies can have important effects on their behavior, researchers found that antidepressants affect fish activity, aggression and reproduction. Since some antidepressants are used to treat obesity, fish with high concentration of serotonin and fluoxetine in their bodies showed signs of decreased feeding rates [14].

Research also showed that psychiatric drugs can have behavioral effects on fish. They mostly affect dominance, activity and sociality[14].

When taken into consideration, all those behavioral changes caused by pharmaceuticals will end up affecting individual fitness and consequently affect predation and competition within the ecosystem. Variation of predation and competition will affect the population by making it grow, decrease and may even lead to extinctions. This will eventually cause a cascade within the food web of the ecosystem[14].

Recently, research showed that 50% less fish was getting caught by fishermen possibly because of the high concentration of pharmaceuticals in the water [15]. In an experiment from 2017, it was showed that high concentrations of pharmaceuticals in river waters cause abnormalities in zebrafish embryos [16].

Process of how pharmaceuticals get to the water

What is the present status compared to the past?

Since this is a recent issue, there is almost no data from previous years. The oldest data comes from 2002, it mentions that concentration of analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs in surface water were all considered very low, whereas very high concentrations of antibacterial drugs, antiepileptic drugs and blood lipid regulators were found[17].

To compare with past years, a review from 2014 shows that concentrations of analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs are all considered high, for example, ibuprofen had a concentration of 1190 ng/l in the effluent waters of New Mexico [18].

What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory?

Like mentioned in the previous sections, the effects pharmaceuticals have on the ecosystems mostly are behavioural. This may not seem as important as it truly is, in fact, those behavioural changes will eventually affect fish fitness and therefore, predation and competition, disrupting the whole food web[14].

Although this area has not been thoroughly studied, it is possible to assume that human exposure to pharmaceuticals could not only influence fish behaviour and ecosystem food webs but also have a drastic effect on human health [13]. For example, scientists are saying that the presence of pharmaceuticals in water will help spread the resistance of antibiotics among bacteria[16]. Evidently, this could easily affect humans by making our antibiotics ineffective.

Given the impact, what are the solutions?

Global Solutions:

Regulations:

Runoff water from wastewater treatment plants makes its way into various marine environments affecting many inhabitants.

To limit the increasing spread of pharmaceutical pollution globally, some regulations are required as the pharmaceutical companies continue to dispose of waste in harmful manners. Therefore, establishing international policies that oversee pharmaceutical waste disposal could serve as an integral part of solving this global problem. Furthermore, the introduction of effective recycling methods could make a substantial difference as all pollutants would be discarded in the proper manner.

On a global scale, efforts should be made to provide an agreement in which business actors of the pharmaceutical industry are required to dispose of medicines in the correct manner as well as knowing the risks of the contents being put out into the marine ecosystems[19]. Legislation regarding the environmental impact and solutions to protect ecosystems should be introduced as this would hold the industry accountable for all damages and changes being made.

Classification:

Pharmaceuticals can be classified into specific categories based on the impact and risk they would have on marine ecosystems. With this method, not only are the risks of pollutants being put out into the waters understood, but it can be known that the impact may not be as detrimental due to proper disposal based on how the environment would react to a specific pollutant being inserted[20].

Local Solutions:

Wastewater treatment plant facilities where the water is treated before being disposed into the marine ecosystems.

Regulations:

As mentioned above, regulations would be a solution to this issue as the industry would have to ensure all methods of disposal followed certain guidelines and were not in any way harming the marine environments around them[21].

Localized Treatments:

Ensuring places with significant amounts of pharmaceuticals implement treatments for the disposal of such substances. Large amounts of pollutants come from hospitals and if there were a clear system in place which allowed for efficient and harmless disposal, it would solve the issue to a great extent as significant amounts of pharmaceuticals and drugs enter the water bodies through such facilities[22].

Bettering the pharmaceutical waste disposal methods used by WWTPs would be crucial to driving a localized treatment to the point of having a global impact[23]. As of right now, WWTPs are not as efficient as they should be as much of the water leaving these systems still contains significant levels of pharmaceuticals, which traces into various marine environments[24].

Comprehension of the Issue:

There is a lack of understanding when it comes to just how much pharmaceutical pollutants impact aquatic life and the extent of the risks. As more research is done and this issue is addressed more by not only scientists but also non-scientists, communities can move forward and ensure that the marine ecosystems around them are protected from the industries nearby that release pollutants[25].

References

  1. ↑ Mezzelani, M., Gorbi, S., & Regoli, F. (2018). Pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environments: Evidence of emerged threat and future challenges for marine organisms. Marine Environmental Research, 140, 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2018.05.001
  2. ↑ Prichard, E., & Granek, E. F. (2016). Effects of pharmaceuticals and personal care products on marine organisms: From single-species studies to an ecosystem-based approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(22), 22365–22384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7282-0
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Gaw, S., Thomas, K. V., & Hutchinson, T. H. (2014). Sources, impacts and trends of pharmaceuticals in the Marine and coastal environment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1656), 20130572. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0572
  4. ↑ Bayen, S., Zhang, H., Desai, M. M., Ooi, S. K., & Kelly, B. C. (2013). Occurrence and distribution of pharmaceutically active and endocrine disrupting compounds in Singapore's marine environment: Influence of Hydrodynamics and physical–chemical properties. Environmental Pollution, 182, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.06.028
  5. ↑ Fabbri, E., & Franzellitti, S. (2015). Human pharmaceuticals in the marine environment: Focus on exposure and biological effects in animal species. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 35(4), 799–812. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3131
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Ebele, A. J., Abdallah, M. A.-E., & Harrad, S. (2017, January 4). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (ppcps) in the freshwater aquatic environment. Emerging Contaminants. Retrieved February 10, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405665016300488#bib19
  7. ↑ Srain, H. S., Beazley, K. F., & trwalker@dal.ca, T. R. W. (2020, December 12). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products and their sublethal and lethal effects in aquatic organisms. Environmental Reviews. Retrieved February 10, 2022, from https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/er-2020-0054
  8. ↑ Klimaszyk, P., & Rzymski, P. (2018). Water and aquatic fauna on drugs: What are the impacts of pharmaceutical pollution? Water Management and the Environment: Case Studies, 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-79014-5_12
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Andresmaa, E. (2017). Pharmaceuticals in the Water and Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea. Retrieved February 10, 2022, from https://helcom.fi/media/publications/BSEP149.pdf
  10. ↑ Arnold, K. E., Brown, A. R., Ankley, G. T., & Sumpter, J. P. (2014). Medicating the environment: Assessing risks of pharmaceuticals to wildlife and Ecosystems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1656), 20130569. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0569
  11. ↑ Mimeault, C., Woodhouse, A. J., Miao, X.-S., Metcalfe, C. D., Moon, T. W., & Trudeau, V. L. (2005, April 20). The human lipid regulator, gemfibrozil bioconcentrates and reduces testosterone in the goldfish, carassius auratus. Aquatic Toxicology. Retrieved February 10, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166445X05000731
  12. ↑ Säfholm, M., Ribbenstedt, A., Fick, J., & Berg, C. (2014). Risks of hormonally active pharmaceuticals to amphibians: A growing concern regarding progestagens. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1656), 20130577. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0577
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Rzymski, P., Drewek, A., & Klimaszyk, P. (2017). Pharmaceutical pollution of aquatic environment: an emerging and enormous challenge. Limnological Review, 17(2), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1515/limre-2017-0010
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Brodin, T., Piovano, S., Fick, J., Klaminder, J., Heynen, M., & Jonsson, M. (2014). Ecological effects of pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems—impacts through behavioural alterations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1656), 20130580. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0580
  15. ↑ Larsen, T. A., Lienert, J., Joss, A., & Siegrist, H. (2004). How to avoid pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Journal of Biotechnology, 113(1-3), 295–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2004.03.033
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Bielen, A., Šimatović, A., Kosić-Vukšić, J., Senta, I., Ahel, M., Babić, S., Jurina, T., González Plaza, J. J., Milaković, M., & Udiković-Kolić, N. (2017). Negative environmental impacts of antibiotic-contaminated effluents from pharmaceutical industries. Water Research, 126, 79–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.09.019
  17. ↑ Heberer, T. (2002). Occurrence, fate, and removal of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment: a review of recent research data. Toxicology Letters, 131(1-2), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4274(02)00041-3
  18. ↑ Li, W. C. (2014). Occurrence, sources, and fate of pharmaceuticals in aquatic environment and soil. Environmental Pollution, 187, 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.01.015
  19. ↑ Chèvre, N. (2013). Pharmaceuticals in surface waters: Sources, behavior, ecological risk, and possible solutions. case study of lake geneva, Switzerland. WIREs Water, 1(1), 69–86. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1006
  20. ↑ Souza, H. de, Costa, R. dos, Quadra, G. R., & Fernandez, M. A. (2021). Pharmaceutical pollution and sustainable development goals: Going the right way? Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, 21, 100428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2021.100428
  21. ↑ Caban, M., & Stepnowski, P. (2021). How to decrease pharmaceuticals in the environment? A Review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 19(4), 3115–3138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01194-y
  22. ↑ Mostofa, K. M. G., Liu, C.-Q., Vione, D., Gao, K., & Ogawa, H. (2013). Sources, factors, mechanisms and possible solutions to pollutants in marine ecosystems. Environmental Pollution, 182, 461–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.08.005
  23. ↑ Gaw, S., Thomas, K. V., & Hutchinson, T. H. (2014). Sources, impacts and trends of pharmaceuticals in the Marine and coastal environment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1656), 20130572. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0572
  24. ↑ Mezzelani, M., Gorbi, S., & Regoli, F. (2018). Pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environments: Evidence of emerged threat and future challenges for marine organisms. Marine Environmental Research, 140, 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2018.05.001
  25. ↑ Blair, B., Zimny-Schmitt, D., & Rudd, M. A. (2017). U.S. news media coverage of pharmaceutical pollution in the aquatic environment: A content analysis of the problems and solutions presented by actors. Environmental Management, 60(2), 314–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-017-0881-9
Retrieved from "https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Course:EOSC270/2022/Effects_of_Pharmaceutical_Pollution_on_Marine_Ecosystems&oldid=716143"