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Asiatic Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus ssp. venaticus)

Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus ssp. venaticus)

The cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus, is a big cat species in the puma lineage of the Felidae family[1]. Cheetahs are the fastest land animals in the world[2], and are known for their characteristic spotted pelts and tear-like black streaks by their eyes[3]. Their preferred habitat is savannahs, scrubland, and open forests[4]. Historically, their range spanned across the arid and semi-arid regions of south-western Asia, central India, and throughout Africa[3]. The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus ssp. venaticus) is one of four recognized subspecies of cheetah[1] and is listed as critically endangered by the IUCN Red List[5]. Divergence between the jubatus and venaticus subspecies was relatively recent, and estimated to be around 32 000-67 000 years ago, likely due to isolation by distance[1]. Cheetahs, particularly the Asiatic subspecies, have some of the lowest genome-wide heterozygosity of all the big cats due to high inbreeding, making them a top priority for conservationists[6].

Historical Background on Cheetah Populations in India

Before its extirpation in India by the mid 20th century, the Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus ssp. venaticus) had a range spanning from the Mediterranean coast to central India[7]. Today, it is reduced to a critically endangered population in Iran[8]. In India, the cheetah played a key role in savannah ecosystems as a prominent predator, until pressures from hunting, prey depletion, and habitat loss led to a rapid decline in cheetah populations across the country[4]. The last three recorded cheetahs were killed in 1948 in the Koriya District in Chhattisgarh State[4]. In September 2009, a meeting was held in Gajner, India, where global experts and specialists discussed reestablishing India’s natural history and the possibility of cheetah reintroduction[4].

Reintroduction: Project Cheetah

Historic and current cheetah range as of 2019

Project Goals

Cheetahs once inhabited India's savannahs and open forests, preying on a wide variety of large vertebrate herbivores. Their preferred diet included particularly deer, gazelles, and antelopes[9]. However, their extirpation has caused their niche to become empty. Reintroducing them would restore these systems' functional ecology through top-down processes. Ecosystem restoration requires rewilding species and their ecological roles, particularly large carnivores such as cheetahs[9]. Thus, Project Cheetah was planned by the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests, in an attempt to reintroduce cheetahs in the Indian landscape. The greater aim is reestablishing India's natural heritage. The project plans to do so by establishing a founding population of cheetahs for five years[10].

Project Preparation

Cheetah prey in Kuno National park

In preparation for the project, the Wildlife Institute of India and the Wildlife Trust of India were tasked by the Indian Ministry of Environment & Forests to study suitable release locations and cheetahs to translocate in 2009. The inbreeding and low numbers of the Asiatic cheetah in Iran deemed it an unsuitable contender for translocation. Thus, the southern African cheetah was chosen, as it had sufficient population size to contribute 29 cheetahs annually without detrimental effect[9]. For site suitability, visual assessment surveys were conducted at prospective sites to assess factors including “economic well-being”, “sources of livelihood”, and “perceptions about wildlife” of the people living in or near the sites[10]. In 2021, the Action Plan For Introduction Of Cheetah In India deemed Kuno National Park (KNP) in the Vindhyan hills of Central India the most suitable site. This site was also chosen because villages that once inhabited the area had previously been displaced for Asiatic lion reintroductions, minimizing the potential for human-wildlife conflicts.

Map of Kuno National Park

Upon deciding, KNP prepared for the arrival of the cheetahs by constructing various barricades, including quarantine, acclimatization, and post-quarantine enclosures. Each enclosure was larger than the previous to enhance adaptation, then finally release the cheetahs into the park. Barricades were also made to keep out larger predators like bears and leopards[11].

Funds for the project were provided by the Indian government as well as state-owned Indian Oil, which is estimated to contribute $11.5 million over the course of the project's five years[11].



Cheetah Reintroduction and Acclimation

Two male cheetahs hunting prey in Kuno National Park

In September 2022, eight cheetahs were transported from Namibia to Gwalior, India via cargo flight[9]. On September 17, 2022, Prime Minister Narendra Modi released the eight cheetahs into KNP. Subsequently, twelve cheetahs were brought from South Africa in February 2023[10]. Upon arrival, the cheetahs were quarantined within KNP for approximately one month to monitor their health and allow them to adjust to their new environment[11]. Following quarantine, they were moved to larger enclosures[11]. The enclosures were stocked with sufficient prey, such as spotted deer and antelope, for at least 18 months[11].

Cheetah Release and Monitoring

After the 18 months, the cheetahs were moved into acclimatization cages, then released freely into KNP. Two male cheetahs hunted their first prey on Indian soil within 24 hours of their release. However, between July and August 2023, cheetahs were re-confined into soft-release bomas (SRBs) for health reasons. SRBs are large, temporary enclosures. Most cheetahs remain in the SRBs today, except for two male cheetahs released in December 2024[10]. The cheetahs are being monitored by specialized monitoring staff via radio collar remote tracking[11].

Success of Project Cheetah

Definition of Success

The evaluation of the success of Project Cheetah can vary from project to project. However, in general, the success of Project Cheetah is determined by the success of:

  • Reproduction of the first generation[12]
  • Reproduction of the wild population for 3 years[12]
  • Recruitment exceeds the mortality rate of mature individuals[12]
  • Overall population persistence[13]

Furthermore, we can address the short-term and long-term definitions of success. Short-term success can be defined as the cheetah population's ability to adapt to the environment through hunting and breeding[12]. On the other hand, long-term success can be defined as the population’s ability to reproduce with recruitment exceeding the mortality rate within the first 3 years after relocation[12].

The Success Within India

The reintroduction of cheetahs to Indian is a fairly new project and will need to be evaluated further. However, there are some positive outcomes from ongoing efforts.

With KNP, as of December 2024, with the 20 cheetahs introduced from Africa in 2023, only 12 survived[14]. Reproduction was successful, as 17 cubs were born from within India. Furthermore, media surrounding cheetahs that have evidently adjusted to the ecosystem within India has influenced the project's success as it has positively influenced the public and politicians[9]. Cheetahs have been spotted hunting and reproducing, which can be seen as potential short-term success.

Additionally, plans to introduce 20 cheetahs to India annually for the next 8-10 years have been in discussion[14]. With this, the project has started off strong and will be monitored for the next few years. However, it is also important to understand that short-term successful establishment is not a guarantee to the long-term success of the cheetah population.

Comparative Analysis of Other Projects

Endangered Wildlife Trust at work with the Cheetah Range Expansion Project in Africa

Cheetah reintroduction has also been seen in other countries. Such projects include the South Africa Cheetah Range Expansion Project, formerly known as the Cheetah Metapopulation Project [15][13] .

The project of cheetahs reintroduction to Africa started in 1965, and it ended as a failure with introduced populations extirpated. Throughout the years, many ongoing projects towards cheetah reintroduction occurred without any successful progress[16]. However, in 2011, the Cheetah Range Expansion Project started by the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) showed success[16]. The population of cheetahs has almost doubled in population from 2012 to 2023; it grew from 274 cheetahs to 400[17].

The cheetah introduction to Malawi, Liwonde National Park, has become a success within the Cheetah Range Expansion Project[13][17]. Cheetahs were locally extinct in Malawi by the early 1990s[13] . It started with the reintroduction of 4 male and 3 female cheetahs starting 2017[13]. Monitoring and tracking through GPS was used in this project, which allowed for examination of the cheetah's ability to adapt to the environment. It was seen that within the first year, the 3 female cheetahs had reproduced and given birth to cubs[13] . Within Liwonde National Park, the cheetahs had been able to adapt by developing homes and establishing a breeding population[13][17]. . Through the reintroduction, the Liwonde National Park now consists of 21 cheetah individuals[17].

Contribution to Success

Cheetah and cubs

Numerous factors contributed to the success of the reintroduction within Liwonde. Furthermore, through the thorough tracking and monitoring of the project, it can greatly improve the implementation of future projects. It was found that the duration of holding periods, animals kept in a designated enclosure, does not affect the success of release. On the contrary, external factors were influential. Liwonde National Park provided a mixed habitat with an abundance of prey and limited competition[13]. The distribution of species within the environment and the terrain can influence the cheetah’s ability to adapt. It is also key to understand that for long-term success to occur, homes must be established and reproduction must occur[15].

When it comes to reintroduction, the implementation of the two primary methods, free range and fenced release also play a role in determining the success of a population. It was found that fenced released sites contribute to greater reproductive success[15]. The limitation of external predators decreases the chance of competition and decreases potential mortality from human-predator conflict. However, it adversely affects genetic diversity and may exceed the carrying capacity[15]. Furthermore, for long-term success, free-range may be potentially more beneficial[15].

Challenges of Project Cheetah

Habitat Suitability

Mara trees in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya

The cheetah reintroduction project in India faces several challenges that could impact its long-term success. One of the primary concerns is habitat suitability. An approximate 3800 square miles area is considered to be appropriate for cheetahs to survive and procreate, which has been proven to be impossible at the KNP due to some of its limitations[11]. One of the evident reasons is that the prey base in the KNP, which is dominant by chital (Axis axis),  is likely not the best for African cheetahs[18]. Based on its prey density, the carrying capacity for cheetahs (~3 individuals/100 km2) in KNP was calculated to be much higher than other free-ranging cheetah populations in Africa (<1 individual/100 km2)[19]. This could be a key factor that affects cheetahs’ mortality.

Back in Africa, most cheetah habitats are plains, grassland or savannah, with a low rainfall and temperatures as well as high latitude. However, habitats in KNP are hilly with prevalent forests due to its higher rainfall and temperatures, potentially leading to the habitat mismatch in the project[18]. This type of landform in the KNP was actually designed for Asiatic lions, an endangered species that originated in India. Introducing African cheetahs to the KNP has squeezed the living space for Asiatic lions, which may cause further ecological questions[18].

Potential Human-Wildlife Conflicts

Another major challenge is the human-wildlife relationships. Insufficient monitoring for cheetahs in the post-released period might lead to the failure of the reintroduction. Workers must be able to approach them safely in case cheetahs get hungry or escape. Beyond that, It is crucial to keep the populations at a rate that is able to maintain genetic diversity while avoiding exceeding the reserve’s carrying capacity of carnivores, especially in the fenced area[15]. When pursuing the free-ranging preservation stage, cheetahs may venture beyond protected areas in search of prey, potentially leading to conflicts with local communities and livestock predation. Crossing roads and farmlands is also a risk for cheetahs to get harmed[15]. Another potential reason would be cheetah’s low densities and their behaviours of establishing territories. Researchers predicted that any additional males introduced or born in KNP will establish territories approximately 20–23 km away from the initial two, which are likely coming into conflict with livestock farmers. Females will also have new opportunities to establish their home ranges between territories, and thus also trigger the conflict[19].

Post-release Monitoring

Determining reproductive and overall success of cheetah reintroduction programs requires long-term, targeted, and intensive monitoring of both the reintroduced individuals and their impact on the environment. Monitoring has been made easier with the use of satellite GPS collars, but visual follow-ups of individuals are still required to determine their health and well-being and assess the outcome of the translocation. The GPS collars are only allowed to be used on adult cheetahs, and should not compromise cheetahs’ survival[15]. Post-release monitoring is a key factor in the increase of cost of any reintroduction program. It was estimated that 56%-60% of cheetah translocation costs are related to post-release monitoring expenses[15].

Lack of Public Awareness and Knowledge

Most Indians alive today were born after cheetahs had already gone extinct in the Indian subcontinent, and since there has been a hunting prohibition since 1972, they have little to no firsthand understanding of what led to cheetahs’ disappearance. The extinction of the cheetah is tragic for many reasons, not least because it never posed a threat to humans. Unfortunately, the apathy of the current generation may contribute to the neglect and mistreatment of this vanishing species[11].

Conclusion

Conservation translocations, the moving of individuals of a species from one location to another, have been implemented globally with the intention of restoring biodiversity in deteriorating ecosystems. One instance of such translocation is Project Cheetah: the reintroduction of wild cheetahs in India. Cheetahs were one of the most wide-ranging and highly dominant carnivores in India’s savannah and forest ecosystems until 70 years ago[9][20]. However, anthropogenic habitat loss and fragmentation, illegal poaching, and human-wildlife conflict have extirpated wild cheetahs from 98% of their historical range, including all of India[20]. Consequently, the Indian government decided to reintroduce cheetahs in 2022, translocating Namibian and South African cheetah populations into the Kuno National Park[9][10]. The relative success of Project Cheetah is debated, as many successes and challenges have been observed. The increased media coverage of Project Cheetah improved public perception of conservation translocations, indirectly aiding in the conservation of cheetahs[9]. Additionally, cheetahs have hunted and reproduced in KNP, having achieved a litter of 17 cubs. However, health issues arose in the cheetahs after release, causing them to be re-enclosed in soft-release bomas[10]. These challenges may be due to habitat suitability and renewed human-wildlife conflict. In fact, KNP does not host the same cheetah prey populations as southern Africa, decreasing habitat suitability[18]. Furthermore, cheetahs may travel beyond the protected area and into farmland, causing conflict with nearby settlements[15]. Yet, KNP is a relatively new project and still has potential to address these challenges while promoting successes. KNP can improve its cheetah population by mirroring the success story of the Liwonde National Park in Malawi. Liwonde National Park provided a mixed habitat with an abundance of prey and restricted competition in fenced enclosures[13]. The fenced enclosures limited external predators and human-wildlife conflict, allowing the population to double. As Project Cheetah continues to develop, these tactics can be implemented to successfully reintroduce cheetahs in the Indian subcontinent, restoring lost ecosystem interactions.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Kitchener, A. C., Breitenmoser-Würsten, C., Eizirik, E., Gentry, A., Werdelin, L., Wilting, A., Yamaguchi, N., Abramov, A. V., Christiansen, P., Driscoll, C., Duckworth, J. W., Johnson, W., Luo, S. J., Meijaard, E., O’Donoghue, P., Sanderson, J., Seymour, K., Bruford, M., Groves C., Hoffmann, M., Nowell, K., Timmons, Z. & Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae. The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN/ SSC Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News Special Issue. Issue 11: 80.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ↑ Quirke, T., O'Riordan, R., Davenport, J. (2013). "A comparative study of the speeds attained by captive cheetahs during the enrichment practice of the "cheetah run."" (PDF). Zoo Biology. 32 (5): 490–496.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Krausman, P. R. & Morales, S. M. (2005). "Acinonyx jubatus" (PDF). Mammalian Species. 771: 1–6.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Jhala, Y. V., Ranjitsinh, M. K., Bipin, C. M. & Yadav, S. P. (2021). "Action Plan For Introduction Of Cheetah In India" (PDF). Statutory Body under Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Govt. of India.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ Jowkar, H., Hunter, L., Ziaie, H., Marker, L., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C. & Durant, S. (2008). "Acinonyx jubatus ssp. venaticus". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ Prost, S., Machado, A. P., Zumbroich, J., Preier, L., Mahtani-Williams, S., Meissner, R., Guschanski, K., Brealey, J. C., Fernandes, C. R., Vercammen, P., Hunter, L. T. B., Abramov, A. V., Plasil, M., Horin, P., Godsall-Bottriell, L., Bottriell, P., Dalton, D. L., Kotze, A., & Burger, P. A. (2022). "Genomic analyses show extremely perilous conservation status of African and Asiatic cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)". Molecular Ecology. 31: 4208–4223.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ↑ National Tiger Conservation Authority (2024). "Project Cheetah in India".
  8. ↑ Farhadinia, M. S., Hunter, L. T. B., Jourabchian, A., Hosseini-zavarei, F., Akbari, H., Ziaie, H., Schaller, G. B., Jowkar, H. (2017). "The critically endangered Asiatic cheetah Acinonyx jubatus venaticus in Iran: a review of recent distribution, and conservation status". Biodiversity & Conservation. Vol. 26, Iss. 5.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 Tordiffe, A. S. W., Jhala, Y. V, Boitani, L., Cristescu, B., Kock, R. A., Meyer, L. R. C., Naylor, S., O’Brien, S. J., Schmidt-Küntzel, A., Stanley Price, M. R (2023). The case for the reintroduction of cheetahs to India  Nature Ecology & Evolution. London Vol. 7, Iss. 4, 480-481. DOI:10.1038/s41559-023-02002-2 https://www.proquest.com/docview/2799301904?accountid=14656&pq-origsite=summon&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Joshi, Y. C., Klarmann, S. E., Klarmann, de Waal, L.C. (2025). Delineating the environmental justice implications of an experimental cheetah introduction project in India. Frontiers in Conservation Science. Vol. 6 https://doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2025.1511815
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Soni, I., & Agarwal, P. (2023). The Impact and Challenges of Reintroducing the Cheetahs in the Indian Subcontinent.. No. 1 Int'l JL Mgmt. & Human., 6, 1744. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/ijlmhs21&i=1762
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Chelysheva, E.V (2011). "Cheetah Reintroduction - 46 years of Translocations". Research at Zoological Parks. 27: 135–179.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 Sivert, O; Fattebert, J; Marnewick, K; Leslie, A (2022). "Assessing the success of the first cheetah reintroduction in Malawi". Oryx. 56: 4. More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Ghate, U; Nalavade, S (2025). "Grassland Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Introduction to Hill Forests in India: Habitat Analysis Error?". Asian Journal of Environment & Ecology. 24 (3): 87–98.
  15. ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 Boast, L; Chelysheva, E; Merwe, V; Schmidt-Kuntzel, A; Walker, E; Cilliers, D; Gusset, M; Marker, L (2018). "Cheetah translocation and reintroduction programs: past, present, and future" (PDF). Cheetahs: biology and conservation: 275–589.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Buk, K; Merwe, V; Marnewick, K; Funston, P (2018). "Conservation of severely fragmented populations: lessons from the transformation of uncoordinated reintroductions of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) into a managed metapopulation with self-sustained growth". Biodiversity and Conservatino. 27: 3393–3423.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Bert, J. "First Cheetah swop in the EWT-led Cheetah Range Expansion Project". Endangered Wildlife Trust.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Kulkarni, H.; Grate, U. (January, 2024). "Cheetah Reintroduction in India: Review of Eco-restoration Policy Gaps". Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences. 7(4): 411–422 – via ResearchGate. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Wachter, B.; Portas, R.; Melzheimer, Joerg (20 April 2023). "The introduction of African cheetahs to India was planned without considering their spatial ecology". Conservation Science and Practice. 5(6) – via Wiley Online Library.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Durant, S. M., Mitchell, N., Groom, R., Young-Overton, K. (2017). The global decline of cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and what it means for conservation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (3) 528-533, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1611122114.


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