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Course:CONS200/2025FL1/Shinrin Yoku and Human Health

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Introduction

Shinrin-yoku (森林浴), also known as forest bathing, generally means spending time in the forest, has been proven to benefit humans both physically and mentally. In Japanese, the term comprises three kanji characters- the first two characters are built up with the character "木“ which means the tree and thus represents the interconnectedness between trees in the forest. The last character "浴” can be directly translated as bathing, which metaphors that human-being would be fully embraced and healed by the surrounding nature when staying in forest. Additionally, Shinrin-yoku has become increasingly relevant in global conservation discussion, as rapid urbanization and declining access to natural spaces heighten the need for accessible nature-based health practices. Thus, this illustrates the profound physiological and psychological connections and influences that forests exert on those who dwell within them[1].

Shinrin-yoku can be enjoyed through all five senses [2].

  • Sight: colors in the forest, and forest landscape itself.
  • Smell: good smell of fresh air, soil, moisture; fragrance from trees and flowers, phytoncides.
  • Hearing: listen to the birds singing and the breeze rustling in the leaves of the trees.
  • Touch: touching trees, leaves, ground, immerse yourself in the forest atmosphere.
  • Taste: edible fruits from forests, taste the fresh air in forests.

1.1 Historical and Cultural Background

The history of Shinrin-yoku dates back to the early 1980s, when the world was experiencing an economic depression triggered by tight monetary policies to combat high inflation. Consequently, led to high interest rates, increased unemployment rate, and a decline various industries[3]. Rooted in Japanese culture's reverence for the beauty of nature, the term 'Shinrin-yoku' was created by Tomohide Akiyama in 1982, who was the director of the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. After being officially put into practice by Akiyama, Shinrin-yoku then became a response to the fast-forwarding urbanization and technological advancements in Japan and encouraged the Japanese public to reconnect with nature[4].

1.2 Potentials in Modern Health Study

Distinct from its origins in nature-based beliefs and its early use as a political measure to stabilize public morale during economic recession, modern research and development on Shinrin-yoku now primarily focuses on its great potential to address human health issues. Unlike the almost faith-like early enthusiasm for forest bathing, recent research shows that the ecosystem values of forests can help explain why Shinrin-yoku has real health benefits. Regulating services like air filtering, air and water regulation, and water purification, as well as gas exchange, can make forests function like natural “oxygen bars.” Other values of forests and trees, such as their aesthetic and recreational appeal, can also indirectly improve people’s physical and mental well-being. Especially today, as more attention is paid to both mental and physical health, studying forest bathing in the health field is a timely and promising direction. These ecosystem services directly influence human physiology by improving air quality and stabalizing temperature, creating conditions that support relaxation. Therefore, in this project, we're focusing on the benefits and the future applications of Shinrin-yoku, and potential challenges public can face when accessing it.

Effects on Human Health

Two females in forest walking
Images from Wikimedia Commons can be embedded easily.

Since 2004, several studies have been conducted to investigate how forest environments effect human health[2].

2.1 Stress and Mental Health

2.1.1 Reduces Level of Stress Hormone.

Stress can be measured using several hormones. Adrenaline and noradrenaline are fast-acting “fight-or-flight” hormones that increase when a person experiences acute stress, such as fear, pain, or intense effort. Cortisol is a slower-acting hormone released by the HPA axis, and higher cortisol levels are often used as an indicator of longer-term or chronic stress. A team led by Dr. Li found that a 2-hour-walk in forest can lead to a decrease in all three stress hormones, indicating a positive stress management[5][6].

2.1.2 Reduce Self-perceived Stress Level

This effect has also been examined using self-report questionnaires that measure how people feel before and after Shinrin-yoku. In one study of adults taking part in forest walks, participants reported clear positive emotional changes after spending time in a forest environment: feelings of depression and hostility decreased, while relaxation and happiness increased. People who started the walk with higher stress levels showed even stronger improvements, suggesting that forest bathing may be especially helpful for those under chronic stress. Overall, these results indicate that Shinrin-yoku can reduce self-perceived stress and support more positive mood states, and that even relatively short forest visits are enough to make people feel noticeably better[7].

2.1.3 Potential Preventive Effects of Shinrin-yoku on Depressed States

Shinrin-yoku’s effects on depression have been assessed using both biological and psychological indicators. Mood is often measured with the Profile of Mood States (POMS), which includes subscales such as depression, anxiety, anger, fatigue, confusion and vigor; studies shown results of lower scores on the negative subscales and higher vigor scores, which indicate improved mental health by Shinrin-yoku and forest bathing experience[8]. Moreover, Furuhyashiki et al. conducted a comparative study of a day-long Shinrin-yoku program in working-age adults with and without depressive tendencies and found significant improvements in POMS scores in both groups, with particularly strong gains in those who were already experiencing depressive symptoms[9].These results suggest that forest bathing can help relieve depressive tendencies and may have a preventive effect in people at risk of depression. These findings provide important insights for future work on the prevention and rehabilitation treatment of depression.

2.2 Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health

2.2.1 Reduce Blood Pressure

According to experiments in both forest and urban areas, and results showed that after a 2-hour walk, the systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels at noon in the forest park were significantly lower than those in the urban area with the diastolic blood pressure level in the afternoon in the forest park was significantly lower than that in the urban area[10].

2.2.2 Reduce Heart rate and Pulse rate

In a large field experiment conducted in 24 forests across Japan, 280 young adults were randomly assigned to spend time either in a forest area or a city area, with each participant experiencing both environments on different days. After about 15 minutes of viewing and 16 minutes of walking, the forest condition led to significantly greater reductions in cardiovascular indicators than the city condition: average pulse rate decreased by 6.0% after viewing and 3.9% after walking, and systolic blood pressure also fell modestly but significantly in the forest setting (p < 0.01, t-test)[11]. These changes in heart rate and blood pressure suggest that Shinrin-yoku can significantly reduce the level of cardiovascular indicators and shift the autonomic nervous system toward a more relaxed state. This evidence highlights the potential of forest bathing as a non-pharmacological strategy for supporting cardiovascular health and preventing stress-related heart and circulatory diseases.

2.2.3 Medical Potentials in Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases Treatments

In a study examining the correlation between green space coverage in large cities and the incidence of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, it is investigated that on average, planting 11 more trees on a city block is associated with a lower prevalence of cardiometabolic diseases, an effect comparable to earning US$20,000 more per year, moving to a neighbourhood with a US$20,000 higher median income, or being 1.4 years younger[12]. Taken together with evidence that forest exposure can lower blood pressure, reduce pulse rate and heat rate this suggests that Shinrin-yoku has substantial potential as a non-pharmacological approach in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. In this way, forest bathing links the psychological benefits described above with measurable improvements in cardiovascular function, highlighting its relevance for future clinical applications.

2.3 Immune Function & Cancer-related Markers

2.3.1 Increases Human Natural Killer Activity and Expression of Anti-cancer Proteins.

Natural killer (NK) cells constitute our bodies’ frontline defense system, guarding against tumors and launching attacks against infections. The activities of NK cells are regulated by the interaction of various receptors expressed on their surfaces with cell surface ligands[13]. To better understand the positive impact of forest bath on humans, twelve healthy aged 37-55 male were selected to experienced a three-day/two-night trip in three different forest fields. Blood was sampled on the second and third days. There are significant differences both before and after the trip and between days 1 and 2 in NK activity. The forest bathing trip also significantly increased the numbers of NK, perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells. These findings indicate that a forest bathing trip can increase NK activity, and that this effect at least partially mediated by increasing the number of NK cells and by the induction of intracellular anti-cancer proteins[14].

2.3.2 Reduction in Immune and Inflammatory Biomarkers

The immune and inflammatory biomarkers, including IL-8, IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ, CRP and related proteins, indicate how active the body’s immune and inflammatory systems are. When their levels are high, it usually means the body is experiencing inflammation or immune stress, which, if prolonged, can be linked to chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and depression. According to one literature review, about 67% of the results showed significant decreases in IL-8 and TNF-α, and all studies that measured the other biomarkers reported statistically significant changes[15]. Together, these findings suggest that forest bathing and forest exposure can help ease the body’s inflammatory responses and immune stress. In turn, this implies that Shinrin-yoku may support the natural regulation and long-term functioning of the immune system, and may also have potential as a complementary approach in the recovery from certain inflammation-related acute conditions.

2.4 Covid-19 Prevention

Elderly people, patients with underlying diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, heart diseases and respiratory diseases are easy to develop COVID-19 and become more severe, and may die of COVID-19 easier due to immunity deficits. Shinrin-yoku may have preventive effect on COVID-19 by boosting immune function, mitigating mental disorders due to “lockdown” and “isolation”. Shinrin-yoku reduces the negative emotions, mental stress and stress hormones. Therefore, Shinrin-yoku may have preventive effect on COVID-19-induced mental stress and mental disorders. Shinrin-yoku also has preventive effects on hypertension and heart diseases to prevent COVID-19[2].

2.5 Sleep Quality and Overall Well-being

An experiment conducted by Emi Morita and her co-workers in 2011 have found the result that forest walking improves nocturnal sleep conditions for individuals with sleep complaints, and extension of sleep duration was greater after an afternoon walk compared to a forenoon walk[16]. To a further extent, the improvement of sleep quality elevates the mental health among the group of working age.

Limitations and Research Gaps

3.1 Lack of Random Sampling and Blind Selections

One important limitation is related to participant selection and the lack of blinding. Several studies note that many volunteers who sign up for Shinrin-yoku research already have a positive attitude toward nature and a strong interest in forest bathing, which can create positive expectations and psychological priming. This may bias self-reported outcomes, such as perceived stress and mood questionnaires, and could even influence physiological measures like hormone levels. In future studies, more careful recruitment and the use of randomization and blinding procedures for both participants and experimenters will be important to reduce these sources of bias and strengthen the validity of the findings[17].

3.2 Lack of Standardized Exposure Duration

At present, there is no standardized, well-validated model for the optimal duration of nature exposure (including Shinrin-yoku). Most existing studies use a 15-minute forest-bathing session as their main model, but actual exposure times range widely from 15 minutes to as long as 4 hours[18]. This variation makes it hard to understand the time-dependent effects of forest bathing on human health and on different physiological and psychological systems. Future research needs to address this gap by more systematically examining how different exposure durations influence these outcomes. Another limitation is that most studies examine short-term exposure, while long-term physiological changes remain understudied. Developing standardized forest bathing protocols will enhance the reliability of future research.

3.3 Lack of Interdisciplinary Work between Foresty and Medical Researches

Current forest bathing research is mostly driven by medical outcomes. As shown in the literature review, most studies take the human body as the main object of study and examine changes in physiological and psychological indicators after activities such as forest walking or viewing[19]. However, because Shinrin-yoku is an inherently interdisciplinary topic, there is still a clear research gap on the “forest side”: few studies treat the forest itself as the research object and systematically analyse how different forest variables, such as species composition, stand density, oxygen levels, and microclimate, shape the forest environment and, in turn, the health effects of exposure. Understanding these environmental mechanisms is crucial, because it can indirectly demonstrate how health is influenced by specific forest conditions and exposure patterns and minimize deviations in medical research results caused by environmental factors in forests. Additionally, many studies rely primarily on urban participants, which may not take into account how individuals who regularly visit forests respond to Shinrin-yoku. Therefore, interdisciplinary work that links forestry and medicine is still needed to fill this gap.

Challenges in Accessing Forest Bathing

4.1 Physical and Environmental Factors

Deforestation and Forest degradation (Urbanization)

Deforestation is the permanent removal of forest. Agriculture (both subsistence and commercial) activities cattle farming, and urban development can cause permanent changes to the landscape and limiting natural access. Forest degradation happens when forest ecosystems lose their capacity to provide important goods and services to people and nature[20]. Based on data collected for 230 countries, forested area is negatively associated with the prevalence of mental health disorders in 2016 (β -0.02 (195% C.I. -0.04/-0.01)[21].

4.2 Social and Economical Factors

4.2.1 Transportation and Financial Constraints

Lack of accessible road, or affordable transportation. Residents living further away from forest may find it difficult to access an available forest to walk in. Some public transportation stops, are not located closely enough to forested areas. In addition, not all forests have trails that can meet people requiring accessibility needs. Some may live at places quite far from an accessible forest, while places with forest views are considerably more expensive. Taken together, the factors limit people's access to forests.

4.2.2 Restricted or Fragmented Access

The public cannot freely enter forests that lie behind fences, such as those on private property or within industrial and military areas. In addition, under the IUCN Protected Area (PA) categories, Category Ia sites (Strict Nature Reserves) are areas where public access is usually not allowed or is extremely restricted in order to minimize human impact[22]. These factors all limit people’s access to certain forests and, as a result, reduce their opportunities to experience forest bathing.

4.2.3 Discrimination, Safety Concerns, and Alienations - Case study

Aokigahara Suicide Forest Japan

Aokigahara(青木原), a forest at the foot of Mt. Fuji, has been a focal point in popular culture in literature and films. Japan's cultural context around suicide, often less stigmatized than other nations, has contributed to the forest's notoriety. It's well known as the leading suicide site in Japan, with about 30 people committing suicide there every year[23]. For many years, this forest has been second only to California’s Golden Gate Bridge for suicide attempts. In 2003, there were 105 confirmed suicides in the forest[24]. However, the figure could be higher, as many bodies go undiscovered for months or years. Some may never be found.

4.3 Individual and Demographic Factors

This could be highly various and intertwined with social and economical factors, for example, people living in a higher elevation may find there's less forest and forests are located at a less accessible demographic substrate. Besides, most studies above showed that at lease 2 hours of forest bathing benefits humans, it is not sure how walkings < 2hrs work, individuals with tight daily schedule may find 2-hour walking difficult to achieve on a daily basis.

Applications and Emerging Practices

5.1 Programs and Organizations

5.1.1 "Forest of Hope"[25]

Forest of Hope long-term program aims at raising awareness about suicide prevention and promote healing for those impacted by suicide loss, while contributing to a healthy and sustainable forest. Every year, CASP (Canadian Association for Suicide Prevention) will choose a new location in Canada to plant seedlings in honour of loved ones who died by suicide or in the name of hope.

5.2.2 Forest Therapy Hub[26]

Forest Therapy Hub (FTHub) is an international organization that provides science-based training in forest bathing and forest therapy. Its main aim is to promote nature-based well-being practices by integrating up-to-date research in health, psychology and ecology with guided experience in natural environments. FTHub offers several professional certification programs, including Forest Bathing Guide, Forest Therapy Practitioner, and Nature Connection Specialist. These programs combine lectures, discussions, demonstrations and supervised practice. Through this training and its global network of practitioners, FTHub helps bring structured forest therapy programs to clinical, community, educational and social settings worldwide.

5.2 Forest therapy

Forest therapy is an elevated level of forest bathing. Certified trails have prompts (signs, brochures, or apps) that guide visitors to inhale deeply, listen to water, touch a tree, or close their eyes. “Typically in these spaces, people walk briskly as exercise or to identify things like birds, and their other senses often shut down,” says Ben Porchuk, founder of GIFT. “By closing your eyes, you enable the other senses to kick in.[27]”

5.3 Forest Medicine

Some researchers focus on forests, while others focus on medicine, but Shinrin-yoku and forest therapy bring these two fields together in an organic way. From this overlap has emerged a new interdisciplinary subject: forest medicine[28]. Forest medicine includes the concepts of Shinrin-yoku and forest therapy, but also goes beyond them. In general, any research that links forests with human health — including both medical studies and forest/environmental studies — can be considered part of forest medicine. For example, from the forestry side this may involve studying phytoncides released by plants, while from the medical side it may involve examining how forest bathing reduces stress or helps prevent disease. As a discipline, forest medicine systematically summarizes and recognizes the medical value of forest bathing and forest therapy, as well as the potential role of forests and forestry in advancing medicine, and provides theoretical support for future interdisciplinary research between forestry and health sciences.

Conclusion

Shinrin-yoku shows that forests are not only ecological systems but also powerful for the human health, both physically and mentally. From lowering stress hormones and improving sleep to strengthening immune function and supporting cardiovascular well-being, forest bathing demonstrates how deeply human health is connected to natural enviroments. These findings tell us that simply encouraging people to spend more time in the forest is a powerful and low-cost public health strategy. At the same time, not everyone has equal access to forests. Urbanization, transportation obstacles, private land restrictions, and personal safety concerns all limit who can experience the benefits of forest bathing. These gaps remind us that Shinrin-yoku is not only a health practice but also an issue of environmental justice. As forest bathing continues to gain recognition in medicine and public health, policymakers and planners have an important opportunity. Expanding urban forest, improving accessibility of green spaces, and investing in reforestation could make healing more available to everyone. Doing so could also support broader social goals, whether that's it's improving mental health and reducing chronic stress to strengthening community resilience. To conclude, Shinrin-yoku highlights a simple but significant meaning that when we take care of the forests, they take care of us. Making sure that the future generations have welcoming and abundant forest spaces will not only protect ecosystems, but also promote healthier and more connected communities.

References

  1. ↑ Plevin, Julia (Spring/Fall 2018). "FROM HAIKU TO SHINRIN-YOKU" (PDF). Forest History Today. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Li, Qing (2022). "Effects of forest environment (Shinrin-yoku/Forest bathing) on health promotion and disease prevention —the Establishment of "Forest Medicine"". J-stage. Archived from the original on |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help). Retrieved 2025-10-30.
  3. ↑ Sablik T, Recession of 1981-82, https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/recession-of-1981-822013. Retrieved Oct 30, 2025. [1]
  4. ↑ ""Forest bathing: what it is and where to do it"". nationalgeographic. 2019-10-18. Retrieved 2025-10-30.
  5. ↑ Li Q, Morimoto K, Kobayashi M; et al. [doi:10.1177/039463200802100113 "Visiting a Forest, but Not a City, Increases Human Natural Killer Activity and Expression of Anti-Cancer Proteins"] Check |url= value (help). International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology. 21: 117–127 – via Sage Journals. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ Park, B.J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Kasetani, T.; et al. (02 May 2009). "The physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan". Environ Health Prev Med. 15: 18–26 – via Springer Nature Link. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ↑ Morita, E., Fukuda, S., Nagano, J., Hamajima, N., Yamamoto, H., Iwai, Y., Nakashima, T., Ohira, H., & Shirakawa, T. (2006). "Psychological effects of forest environments on healthy adults: Shinrin-yoku (forest-air bathing, walking) as a possible method of stress reduction". Public Health, 121(1), 54–63.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ Li Q, Kawada T. (2014). "Possibility of clinical applications of forest medicine". Nihon Eiseigaku Zasshi. 69(2):117–21.
  9. ↑ Furuyashiki A, Tabuchi K, Norikoshi K, Kobayashi T, Oriyama S. (2019). "A comparative study of the physiological and psychological effects of forest bathing (Shinrin-yoku) on working age people with and without depressive tendencies". Environ Health Prev Med. 24(1):46.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ Li, Q., Otsuka, T., Kobayashi, M.; et al. (23 March 2011). "Acute effects of walking in forest environments on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters". European Journal of Applied Physiology. 111: 2845–2853 – via Springer Nature Link. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Park, B. J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Kasetani, T., Kagawa, T., & Miyazaki, Y. (2010). "The physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan". Environmental health and preventive medicine. 15(1), 18–26.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Kardan, O., Gozdyra, P., Misic, B., Moola, F., Palmer, L. J., Paus, T., & Berman, M. G. (2015). "Neighborhood greenspace and health in a large urban center". Scientific reports, 5, 11610.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Arundhati Mandal, Chandra Viswanathan (27 December 2014). "Natural killer cells: In health and disease". Hematology/Oncology and Stem Cell Therapy. 8: 47–55 – via Science Direct.
  14. ↑ Qi Li; et al. (Apr 2007). "Forest Bathing Enhances Human Natural Killer Activity and Expression of Anti-Cancer Proteins". International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology. 20: 3–8 – via Sage Journals. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  15. ↑ Jia, B. B., Yang, Z. X., Mao, G. X., Lyu, Y. D., Wen, X. L., Xu, W. H., Lyu, X. L., Cao, Y. B., & Wang, G. F. (2016). "Health Effect of Forest Bathing Trip on Elderly Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease". Biomedical and environmental sciences: BES, 29(3), 212–218.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ Morita, E., Imai, M., Okawa, M.; et al. (14 October 2011). "before and after comparison of the effects of forest walking on the sleep of a community-based sample of people with sleep complaints". BioPsychoSocial Medicine. Retrieved Nov 05 2025. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Yeon, P. S., Jeon, J. Y., Jung, M. S., Min, G. M., Kim, G. Y., Han, K. M., Shin, M. J., Jo, S. H., Kim, J. G., & Shin, W. S. (2021). "Effect of Forest Therapy on Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". International journal of environmental research and public health. 18(23), 12685.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ↑ Farrow, M. R., & Washburn, K. 2019. "A Review of Field Experiments on the Effect of Forest Bathing on Anxiety and Heart Rate Variability". Global advances in health and medicine.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ Wen, Y., Yan, Q., Pan, Y.; et al. (2019). "Medical empirical research on forest bathing (Shinrin-yoku): a systematic review". Environ Health Prev Med 24. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ "Deforestation and forest degradation". IUCN. Feb 2021. Retrieved Nov 02 2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  21. ↑ Bolton, Montag, Gallo, Alice, Doreen, Valentina (May, 2022). "Global forestry areas, deforestation and mental health: A worldwide ecological study". ScienceDirect. Archived from the original on |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help). Retrieved Nov, 01, 2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ Nigel Dudley (2008). "Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories". IUCN.
  23. ↑ Takahashi, Yoshitomo (1988). "Aokigahara-jukai: Suicide and Amnesia in Mt. Fuji's Black Forest". Wiley Online Library. Retrieved Nov.01.2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  24. ↑ Ungvarsky, Janine (2025). "Aokigahara (forest)".
  25. ↑ "Forests of Hope Program". CASP. Retrieved Nov.01,2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  26. ↑ "FTH home page". Forest Therapy Hub. Retrieved Dec 7 2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  27. ↑ Siddiqi, Maryam (Oct,10, 2023). "You've heard of forest bathing. Now try forest therapy". National Geographic. Retrieved Nov.01.2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  28. ↑ Li Q. (2022). "Effects of forest environment (Shinrin-yoku/Forest bathing) on health promotion and disease prevention -the Establishment of "Forest Medicine"". Environmental health and preventive medicine, 27, 43.


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