Course:CONS200/2024WT1/Rare earth metal mining in Western Africa and impacts on conservation

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Introduction

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Include the scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of negative impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue.

Location

West African countries

West Africa is a region part of Sub-Saharan Africa and is comprised of the African countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cabo Verde, Chad, Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo[1].

Mining deposit

Rare earth mining is can be obtained in either in an open pit or underground[2]. These mining operations require an extensive amount of energy and water to retrieve the metals[2]. During the retrieval, it is common for these operations to produce a waste stream. Not all mining operation undergoes an identical extraction process however, the extraction methods used are usually quite similar. Western Africa is home to numerous extraction sites, many coming from the West African Craton[3]. The West African craton undergoes little amount of deformation which allows it to be a stable and used for mineral exploration[3].

Economic Implications

In 2022, the Western African countries of Ivory Coast, Mali, Guinea, Nigeria, and Mali accounted for 61% of the global production of rare earth metals (REMs). Although somewhat behind, the Western countries of Benin, Togo, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Gambia, combined only represent 35%[4].  As Western Africa grows in the rare earth metals extraction industry, companies in several countries such as China, USA, and Russia[4] are becoming more involved as well. Although Africa is home to many REMs, the companies that take advantage of these deposits are typically international.

China

China is currently the biggest producers of REMs, accounting for around 58%[5] of all REMs in the world. China has also acquired the most mining contracts in Western Africa as well as all of Sub-Saharan Africa[5]. In 2019, China exported minerals from Sub-Saharan Africa that total up to 10 billion dollars USD. [5]

China has been known to engage in illegal mining activities within West Africa. For example, in 2023, Nigeria was subjected to an illegal mining operation from Chinese companies. Nigeria is a country rich in both rare earth elements and other critical minerals which has resulted in Nigeria being Africa’s main economy. One Chinese company, the Ruitai Mining Company, was suspended due to their illegal mining of titanium.

United States of America

The United States of America is continuing to grow their involvement in the rare earth elements (REE) industry, diverging away from China and focusing on Africa[6]. The USA is interested in expanding their need for REE as they play an important role in many aspects of their economy including military equipment, technology, and medical equipment[6]. The demand for non-Chinese sources leads the USA to the growing REE market in Africa. Additionally, not only is West Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa all together rich in REEs, the land is likewise abundant in critical minerals such as, manganese, and cobalt among others[7]. The West African countries of Ghana and Ivory Coast, among other Sub-Saharan African countries account for 51.8% of the manganese supplies in 2020[7]. These natural resources attract countries like the USA. However, despite the growing interest from the United States, China still holds dominance in the region.

Mineral Security Partnership

Seeing as that China holds dominance over the production of REMs in West Africa, in 2022, the Mineral Security Partnership was created to mitigate China’s control[5]. The Mineral Security Partnership consists of the USA, the EU, Great Britain, other Western countries[5]. The MSP goals are to ultimately increase their participation and investment in mineral mining in West Africa[8]. However, China is still the main producer of REMs. For instance, the leader of the production of Rare Earth Oxides (REMs when they react with oxygen) is China at 70% of the total tons in 2022, following USA (14%)[8].  

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

In addition, several of the West African countries are part of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). The EITI was established in 2003 to help better the management of natural resources through publicly disclosing both payments and revenues from the government.[6] Currently, the EITI includes 56 countries where 27 are African[6]. 16 REE-rich African countries have committed their support to the EITI including several West African countries: Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, and Nigeria[6]. This initiative recognizes the revenue generated from the natural resources ensuring they are allocated to the citizens of the country.[6]

Environmental and Conservation Impacts

The Depletion of Habitats

After multipule assesments from water and soil have confirmed, the leaching from the mines in West Africa, there has been a growing concern as this is a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystem stability. The mining process often entails the extensive clearing of land, leading to the destruction of critical habitats such as forests and wetlands, which are home to diverse species. This loss not only disrupts local wildlife populations but also leads to habitat fragmentation, making it difficult for species to migrate and reproduce. The resulting isolation can diminish genetic diversity and increase vulnerability to extinction, particularly for endemic and endangered species.[9]

Loss of Biodiversity

The disruption of habitats leads to the decline of various species, some of which are endangered. This loss can have cascading effects on local ecosystems. In some areas, mining threatens already endangered species, pushing them closer to extinction. Conservation efforts may be hindered by habitat loss and fragmentation.[10] , soil degradation and the disruption of water systems can further exacerbate ecological decline, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic environments. As these ecosystems are degraded, essential services such as carbon sequestration, water purification, and flood regulation are compromised, impacting local communities and their livelihoods.[9] The cumulative effects of habitat depletion underscore the need for sustainable mining practices and robust conservation strategies to protect these invaluable ecosystems from irreversible damage.[11]

Pollutants

Air Pollution

Dust and emissions from mining activities can degrade air quality, posing health risks to nearby communities and wildlife. Air pollution from rare earth metal mining in West Africa poses serious health risks to both local communities and the environment. The mining process often generates significant amounts of dust, which can be laden with harmful particulates and toxic substances, including silica and heavy metals. This dust can lead to respiratory issues and other health problems among residents. [9] Additionally, emissions from machinery and processing plants contribute to air quality degradation, potentially exacerbating existing conditions like asthma. The particulate matter released can travel long distances, affecting air quality far beyond the immediate mining site. Furthermore, the degradation of air quality can harm local ecosystems, disrupting flora and fauna that rely on clean air for survival. Overall, the implications of air pollution from mining extend beyond immediate health concerns, impacting the quality of life and ecological integrity in affected regions.[10]

Social Impacts

The consequences of rare earth metal mining are not limited to the natural ecosystems. Communities that live close to these mining sites are directly affected by the degradation of the environment. They are often left with poverty and health problems due to the negative impacts of mining.

Displacement

In most West African countries, governments own their countries' metal sources, and often are used as a key trading material. Since local communities own the right to the land above mining sites, families are frequently promised high paying jobs when mining corporations locate close to their homes[12]. However, when the corporations come into the environment they often add barriers that limit the profit from going to communities. In Zimbabwe, members of the community who were promised mining jobs had to join the “Zimbabwe Miners Federation,” before being able to mine for lithium[13]. The federation, which also had ties to illegal trade, limited the workers profits by 75% making it difficult for communities to grow economically. The same mining project also disturbed local families who were evicted with little to no compensation. Families had to relocate and rebuild their homes, using up time and resources that could have been used to improve livelihoods[13].

Communities in Ghana have also been affected my rare earth metal mining as although employment was promised within mining corporations the reality is that jobs are scarce. Additionally, the deforestation caused by mining reduces wood and charcoal supply. As a result, families are forced to spend more time and effort to meet their daily needs, making it difficult to survive in their communities[12].

Health Problems

The extensive mining has lead to people developing heath problems that worsen their livelihoods. Pollution and toxic chemicals that are produced during the process of mining, have a negative effect on the local communities[14].

Respiratory Illness

Sub-Saharan communities located close to mine dumps were found to be at a higher risk of developing cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure and heart disease[14].

Solutions

Though rare earth mining continues to be a common practice in many West African countries there has been conservation attempts to minimize its negative impacts.

Technological Advancements

Although yet to be perfected, Harvard researchers have created alternate methods for mining that do not use toxic chemicals to separate metals. Bacterias from a marine algae have been tested on 17 elements, successfully going through the process that was previously done by chemicals[15].

Alternatively, car companies such as BMW, Nissan, and Toyota have shifted towards using magnetic resources instead of rare earth metals. Using these new materials reduces the demand for mining which in turn increases conservation opportunities for West African forests and communities where mines would otherwise replace[16].

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.[5]

  1. ↑ Fage, John; McCaskie, T.C. "Western Africa". Britannica.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Haque, N; Hughes, A; Lim, S; Vernon, C (2014). "Rare Earth Elements: Overview of Mining, Mineralogy, Uses, Sustainability and Environmental Impact". Resources. 3.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Markwitz, Vanessa; Hein, Kim A.A.; Miller, John (2016). "Compilation of West African mineral deposits: Spatial distribution and mineral endowment". Precambrian Research. 274: 61–81 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Kohnert, Dirk (2024). "Prospects and challenges for the export of rare earths from Sub-Saharan Africa to the EU" (PDF). International Journal of African Studies. 4 – via SvedbergOpen.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Bekoe, Dorina A.; Daly, Sarah A.; Burchard, Stephanie M.; Deatherage, Sydney N.; Sindle, Erin L. (February 2022). "Rare Earth Elements in Africa: Implications for U.S. National and Economic Security" (PDF). Institute for Defense Analyses.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Grant, James; Cohel, Ariel (June 2021). "America's Critical Strategic Vulnerability: Rare Earth Elements". American Foreign Policy Council.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Vivoda, Vlado (2023). "Friend-shoring and critical minerals: Exploring the role of the Minerals Security Partnership". Energy Research & Social Science. 100 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Nayar, Jaya (August 12, 2021). "Not So "Green" Technology: The Complicated Legacy of Rare Earth Mining".
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Zapp, Petra. "Environmental impacts of rare earth production".
  11. ↑ Oladipo, Habeebullah (April 3, 2023). "Global Environmental Health Impacts of Rare Earth Metals: Insights for Research and Policy Making in Africa".
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Boafo, James (June, 2024). "The race for critical minerals in Africa: A blessing or another resource curse?". ScienceDirect. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Surma, Katie (November 15). "Corruption and Rights Abuses Are Flourishing in Lithium Mining Across Africa, a New Report Finds". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Frazzoli, Chiara (September, 2024). "Rare Earth and Platinum Group Elements In Sub-Saharan Africa and Global Health: The Dark Side of the Burgeoning of Technology". SageJournals. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ↑ Gartman, A. (2017). "Microbes Facilitate Mineral Deposition in Bioelectrochemical Systems" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 61 (help)
  16. ↑ Serpell, Oscar (May, 2021). "Rare Earth Elements: A Resource Constraint of the Energy Transition". Check date values in: |date= (help)


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