Course:CONS200/2024WT1/Rare earth metal mining in Western Africa and impacts on conservation

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Introduction

Due to its rich deposits of rare earth elements (REE), the mining in Western Africa is causing large scale damage to its residence, animals, and environment. The value of Rare Earth Metals as increased greatly in the last decade, as the demand for modern technology has grown. REEs are found in a wide range of items such as satellites, hybrid vehicles, cameras, pacemakers, etc. Mining deposits in West Africa are applying stresses to endangered species and are causing health problems in the near populace[1]. The mining deposits are also causing a number of economic and social implications locally and overseas.

Location

West African countries

Countries in West Africa

West Africa is a region part of Sub-Saharan Africa and is comprised of the African countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cabo Verde, Chad, Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo[2].

Mining deposit

Rare earth mining is can be obtained in either in an open pit or underground[3]. These mining operations require an extensive amount of energy and water to retrieve the metals[3]. During the retrieval, it is common for these operations to produce a waste stream. Not all mining operation undergoes an identical extraction process however, the extraction methods used are usually quite similar. Western Africa is home to numerous extraction sites, many coming from the West African Craton[4]. The West African craton undergoes little amount of deformation which allows it to be a stable and used for mineral exploration[4].

Economic Implications

In 2022, the Western African countries of Ivory Coast, Mali, Guinea, Nigeria, and Mali accounted for 61% of the global production of rare earth metals (REMs). Although somewhat behind, the Western countries of Benin, Togo, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Gambia, combined only represent 35%[5].  As Western Africa grows in the rare earth metals extraction industry, companies in several countries such as China, USA, and Russia[5] are becoming more involved as well. Although Africa is home to many REMs, the companies that take advantage of these deposits are typically international.

China

China is currently the biggest producers of REMs, accounting for around 58%[5] of all REMs in the world. China has also acquired the most mining contracts in Western Africa as well as all of Sub-Saharan Africa[6]. In 2019, China exported minerals from Sub-Saharan Africa that total up to 10 billion dollars USD. [5]

China has been known to engage in illegal mining activities within West Africa. For example, in 2023, Nigeria was subjected to an illegal mining operation from Chinese companies[5]. Nigeria is a country rich in both rare earth elements and other critical minerals which has resulted in Nigeria being Africa’s main economy. One Chinese company, the Ruitai Mining Company, was suspended due to their illegal mining of titanium[5].

United States of America

The United States of America is continuing to grow their involvement in the rare earth elements (REE) industry, diverging away from China and focusing on Africa[6]. The USA is interested in expanding their need for REE as they play an important role in many aspects of their economy including military equipment, technology, and medical equipment[6]. The demand for non-Chinese sources leads the USA to the growing REE market in Africa. Additionally, not only is West Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa all together rich in REEs, the land is likewise abundant in critical minerals such as, manganese, and cobalt among others[7]. The West African countries of Ghana and Ivory Coast, among other Sub-Saharan African countries account for 51.8% of the manganese supplies in 2020[7]. These natural resources attract countries like the USA. However, despite the growing interest from the United States, China still holds dominance in the region.

Mineral Security Partnership

Seeing as that China holds dominance over the production of REMs in West Africa, in 2022, the Mineral Security Partnership was created to mitigate China’s control[8]. The Mineral Security Partnership consists of the USA, the EU, Great Britain, other Western countries[8]. The MSP goals are to ultimately increase their participation and investment in mineral mining in West Africa[9]. However, China is still the main producer of REMs. For instance, the leader of the production of Rare Earth Oxides (REMs when they react with oxygen) is China at 70% of the total tons in 2022, following USA (14%)[9].  

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

In addition, several of the West African countries are part of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). The EITI was established in 2003 to help better the management of natural resources through publicly disclosing both payments and revenues from the government.[6] Currently, the EITI includes 56 countries where 27 are African[6]. 16 REE-rich African countries have committed their support to the EITI including several West African countries: Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, and Nigeria[6]. This initiative recognizes the revenue generated from the natural resources ensuring they are allocated to the citizens of the country.[6]

Environmental and Conservation Impacts

The Depletion of Habitats

An Critically Endangered Great Ape Species; Western Lowland Gorilla

After multiple assessments from water and soil have confirmed, the leaching from the mines in West Africa, there has been a growing concern as this is a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystem stability. The mining process often entails the extensive clearing of land, leading to the destruction of critical habitats such as forests and wetlands, which are home to diverse species. This loss not only disrupts local wildlife populations but also leads to habitat fragmentation, making it difficult for species to migrate and reproduce. The resulting isolation can diminish genetic diversity and increase vulnerability to extinction, particularly for endemic and endangered species[10].

Depletion of Apes

Africa is known as one of the world’s most ecologically diverse places and is home to a significant ape population. As noted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, 67% of these primates are considered threatened[11]. The most impacted are the Great apes, with all 14 species of Great apes are classified as Endangered or Critically Endangered[11]. Due to mining, the population of apes have been affected drastically. The ape range found in West Africa has been fragmented heavily which can affect their ability to find shelter and food.[11]  Additionally, due to the coexistence of ape habitats and mining productions, the ape populations begin to become isolated, leading to the potential of genetic diversity[12]. As a result of mining practices, an estimate of one third of the ape population in Africa is projected to feel the effects[11]. In West Africa, 82% of the ape population resides in areas in regions experiencing mining practices or preoperational mining areas, with 83% of the apes residing in Guinea could potentially be impacted by the mines[11]. The countries with the largest areas of land that contain both ape populations and mining activities are all located in West Africa; Liberia, Sierra Leone, Mali, and Guinea[11].  

Loss of Biodiversity

The destruction of habitats causes many species to decline in number putting endangered ones at greater risk of dying out. This can set off a chain reaction in local ecosystems. Habitat loss and breaking up ecosystems into smaller cut-off areas can make it harder to protect wildlife. When water systems get messed up, it can make things even worse for land-based environments. As these ecosystems fall apart, they can't do important jobs like storing carbon, cleaning water, and stopping floods as well[13]. This hurts nearby communities and how they make a living. The total damage from losing habitats shows why we need mining that doesn't harm nature and strong plans to save these precious ecosystems before it's too late to fix them[2].

Liberia

Open Pit Mining in Liberia

The West African country of Liberia is home to forests that contains rich biodiversity. However, since 2011, Liberia’s forests have been the center of several threats including mining[14]. Liberia is situated in the Guinean Forest Biodiversity hotspot and the Upper Guinean Endemic Bird Area[14]. This forest is known globally to be one of the least protected and endangered forest. The Endemic Bird Area is a region that has at least two or more species of birds that are considered to have a relatively small range[14]. Liberia is the habitat to 590 bird species[10]. Moreover, Liberia contains an estimate of 2000 species of flowering plants, 125 mammal species, 74 amphibians, and 1000 insect species.[10] Liberia’s forests are supported with a diverse range of flora and fauna species which highlights the importance of the conservation of this area. In total, Liberia holds 25 Key Biodiversity Areas such as, the Nimba Mountains, Cavalla Forest[14]. Liberia does have protected areas in place to help conserve biodiversity however, it is observed that these protected areas overlap with mineral exploration, agricultural, and mining practices[14]. These factors have threatened biodiversity in Liberia in the forms of fragmentation and degradation.  

Radioactive Pollution

Radioactive dust caused by blasting and mine sewage is one of the main contributors to the negative environmental impact of mining. The quantities of blasting agent depend on the stripping rate, which is the amount of waste that must be removed to exposed the desired ores. Therefore, the more rock that has to be blasted and removed, the more dust is generated. The amount of dust can be reduced by irrigation systems, another sources of pollution is through mine sewage, it contains heavy metals that are released into the soil when discharged uncontrolled[13].

Air Pollution

Dust and emissions from mining activities can degrade air quality, posing health risks to nearby communities and wildlife. Air pollution from rare earth metal mining in West Africa poses serious health risks to both local communities and the environment. The mining process often generates significant amounts of dust, which can be laden with harmful particulates and toxic substances, including silica and heavy metals. This dust can lead to respiratory issues and other health problems among residents. Additionally, emissions from machinery and processing plants contribute to air quality degradation, potentially exacerbating existing conditions like asthma. The particulate matter released can travel long distances, affecting air quality far beyond the immediate mining site. Furthermore, the degradation of air quality can harm local ecosystems, disrupting flora and fauna that rely on clean air for survival. Overall, the implications of air pollution from mining extend beyond immediate health concerns, impacting the quality of life and ecological integrity in affected regions[13].

Social Impacts

Displacement

The consequences of rare earth metal mining are not limited to the natural ecosystems. Communities that live close to these mining sites are directly affected by the degradation of the environment[15]. In most West African countries, governments own their countries' metal sources, and often are used as a key trading material. Since local communities own the right to the land above mining sites, families are frequently promised high paying jobs when mining corporations locate close to their homes[15]. However, when the corporations come into the environment they often add barriers that limit the profit from going towards the communities. This means that the promises of a prospering economy are not met, negatively affecting the people who were hoping for an improved standard of living[15].

Ghana

Communities in Ghana have also been affected my rare earth metal mining. Although an abundance in employment was promised by the mining corporations, jobs were found to scarce. Additionally, the deforestation caused by mining reduces wood and charcoal supply. As a result, families are forced to spend more time and effort to meet their daily needs, making it difficult to survive in their communities[15].

Health Problems

The extensive mining has lead to people developing heath problems that worsen their livelihoods. The consequences that come from mining such as pollution and toxic chemicals have a huge negative effect on the local communities[16].

Risk of Diseases

Sub-Saharan communities located close to mine dumps were found to be at a higher risk of developing diseases due to the exposure of chemicals and pollutants[16]. Since most countries lack regulations protecting the public from chemical exposure, people who live in countries that produce REMs are more likely to have high blood levels of inorganic pollutants. Trichloroethylene (TCE) is an especially dangerous chemical that has been co-related with the levels of REMs a country produces[16]. TCE which has been linked to cancer, congenital anomalies, cardiovascular diseases, and infertility. Additionally mines increase the levels of chemicals such as platinum and lead which cause detrimental health risks to humans[16].

Nigeria

A specific instance in which REM mining hugely negative effects on a community can be highlighted by the tragedy that took place in Nigeria during the late 2000s[17]. Due to the contamination of lead in local food sources, 400 - 500 people died of lead poisoning. With the deaths being accounted mostly out of children, the consequences of mining were detrimental to this community.[18] Additionally, since many people living near the mines were part of lower income families, they could not relocate. Topped with mining companies producing unregulated amounts of chemical waste, many other fatalities that resulted from this contamination[17].

Solutions

Marine Algae Bacteria

Although yet to be perfected, Harvard researchers have created alternate methods for mining that do not use toxic chemicals to separate metals. Bacterias from a marine algae have been tested on 17 elements, successfully going through the process that was previously done by chemicals[18]. This process will especially benefit humans as the decreased use of chemicals will result in less pollution[18]. Overall, the health of organisms around the world mining site is likely to improve. Unfortunately, digging up pits and using space would still be a crucial part to this new mining process[18]. As a result, the environment will still be degraded, limiting biodiversity as organisms lose their habitat[13]. This goes to show that although this process is innovative, it cannot be the only form of action towards conservation.

Alternative Technologies

Car companies such as BMW, Nissan, and Toyota have shifted towards using magnetic resources instead of rare earth metals[19]. Developing these new technologies, the increasingly generations of environmentally aware consumers are more likely to purchase the cars. This reduces the demand for REM which decreases the amount of mines that take place in West African countries. In turn, opportunities for conservation are expanded and West African forests and communities can thrive in areas where mines would otherwise replace[20].

Recommendations

Increased Environmental Regulations

Increasing regulations for to protect the environmental is likely to soften the consequences of REM mining. Since West Africa provides habitat for many endangered species, it is crucial to maintain unpolluted areas and encourage biodiversity to thrive. Introducing methods such as protected areas or community conservation are possible methods to support the richly diverse ecosystems throughout West African countries [10]. Protected areas would benefit the environment as it would create areas that mining cooperations could not take over. Currently, there are some areas near ming sites that are conserved to provided native organisms with habitat[21]. However, these protected habitats are fragmented, bigger organisms such as apes have a harder time finding food and reproducing[21]. Providing a larger protected area will give them a healthier environment as they will be less likely to run into mining pits. Community conservation can also be beneficial as it will give communities job opportunities. Many members of the community regard these mines to provide economic profit and rely on the money coming from the cooperations for their survival[15]. With the implementation of community conservations, members will have an alternative choice that helps them improve their livelihoods while supporting their environment.

Increased Humanitarian Regulations

As for humanitarian regulations, introducing a limit to waste productions can be placed to prioritize the health of the communities[16]. It is important to prioritize the health of the people living around the mines, which means that strict health regulations need to be implemented. Mining cooperations should provide communities with a their plan to support the health of the people. Regularly required testing around the mining sites is also a way to keep cooperations in check of the waste and pollution levels [17]. Having government officials come in to do these checks will further impove results as cooperations would be unable to manipulate the data. Though these methods will cost the government and mining cooperations time and resources, it is essential to find improvements to make REM mining safer for all parties involved.

Recycling REEs

Rare earth elements are very popular and in demand due to being used in several clean energy technologies like electric vehicles[16]. A proposed solution is to reduce the dependency on REEs all together[20]. By reducing the need to extract these elements, this will lower to environmental costs. However, this solution may be difficult as some REEs are essential for industrial activities as previously mentioned. Additionally, it is proposed that recycling REE may be beneficial as well[20]. Recycling can be done through recovering previously used REEs from activities such as in landfills, disposed consumer products (cars), and production processes[20]. This can be an effective management process as it will mitigate the effects on the environment as well.  

Conclusion

Throughout the years, the market for the extraction of rare earth elements (REEs) have increased dramatically and is continuing to expand not only through West Africa, but the entirety of Africa all together. The establishment of rare earth metal mines in West Africa has marked significant investment opportunities for several countries including China and the United States of America[6]. Rare earth elements have many benefits to humans as they are necessary in various things like electric cars, cell-phones, and several industries[16].  

However, with this emergence of popularity for REEs, the presence of these mines and mineral exploration has caused many negative effects. Mining rare earth metals is extremely taxing on the environment because these practices involve excavating pits and using a lot of energy[3]. As a result, mining for REEs pose many threats to conservation. These effects include the depletion of critical ecosystems, loss of biodiversity, and several human impacts as well. As a result, the endangered Great Ape species have been severely threatened as their habitats have been fragmented, in turn causing their population to experience isolation[11]. Additionally, areas supporting rich biodiversity have too been exposed to the negative impacts of mining. As seen in Liberia, the Endemic Bird Area known to inhabit a diverse population of birds has been subject to the fragmentation of its land. [14]

Solutions have been put in place in hopes to reduce the impacts of rare earth mining. As mentioned, researchers from Harvard are currently exploring different approaches that will avoid harmful effects as seen with the extraction of rare earth metals.[18] Although these efforts to mitigate the practices have shown to not use toxic chemicals, it still involves extracting and digging pits, degrading the environment[18]. However, better solutions are still being developed as seen through the proposed methods of recycling REEs.[19]

The impacts of rare earth mining is clear to see through the impact on conservation of species and ecosystems. Although there are solutions being developed, there still needs to be more work done to ensure that biodiversity and species are properly protected.

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.[8]

  1. ↑ Bashir, Farhana. "Rare Earth Deposits In Africa".
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Fage, John; McCaskie, T.C. "Western Africa". Britannica.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Haque, N; Hughes, A; Lim, S; Vernon, C (2014). "Rare Earth Elements: Overview of Mining, Mineralogy, Uses, Sustainability and Environmental Impact". Resources. 3.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Markwitz, Vanessa; Hein, Kim A.A.; Miller, John (2016). "Compilation of West African mineral deposits: Spatial distribution and mineral endowment". Precambrian Research. 274: 61–81 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Kohnert, Dirk (2024). "Prospects and challenges for the export of rare earths from Sub-Saharan Africa to the EU" (PDF). International Journal of African Studies. 4 – via SvedbergOpen.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Bekoe, Dorina A.; Daly, Sarah A.; Burchard, Stephanie M.; Deatherage, Sydney N.; Sindle, Erin L. (February 2022). "Rare Earth Elements in Africa: Implications for U.S. National and Economic Security" (PDF). Institute for Defense Analyses.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Grant, James; Cohel, Ariel (June 2021). "America's Critical Strategic Vulnerability: Rare Earth Elements". American Foreign Policy Council.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Vivoda, Vlado (2023). "Friend-shoring and critical minerals: Exploring the role of the Minerals Security Partnership". Energy Research & Social Science. 100 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 "Mainstreaming Social and Environmental Considerations into the Liberian National Forestry Reform Process" (PDF). World Bank. September 2010.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Junker, Jessica; et al. (Apr 2024). "Threat of mining to African great apes". Science Advances. Vol 10, Issue 14 – via Science Direct.
  12. ↑ Nayar, Jaya (August 12, 2021). "Not So "Green" Technology: The Complicated Legacy of Rare Earth Mining".
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Zapp, Petra. "Environmental impacts of rare earth production".
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 "A National Biodiversity Offset Scheme: A Road Map for Liberia's Mining Sector" (PDF). World Bank Group. March 2015. line feed character in |title= at position 39 (help)
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Boafo, James; Obodai, Jacob; Stemn, Eric; Nti Nkrumah, Philip (June 2024). "The race for critical minerals in Africa: A blessing or another resource curse?". Resources Policy. 93 – via Science Direct.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 Frazzoli, Chiara; Bocca, Beatrice; Battistini, Beatrice; Ruggieri, Flavia; Rovira, Joaquim; Nwadiuto Amadi, Cecilia; James Offor, Samuel; Orisakwe, Orish (September 2024). "Rare Earth and Platinum Group Elements In Sub-Saharan Africa and Global Health: The Dark Side of the Burgeoning of Technology". Environmental Health Insights. 18 – via Sage Journals.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Stewart, Alex (July 2019). "Mining is bad for health: a voyage of discovery". Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 42: 1153–1165 – via Springer Nature Link.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 Gartman, A. (2017). "Microbes Facilitate Mineral Deposition in Bioelectrochemical Systems" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 61 (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Serpell, O., Paren, B., & Chu, W.-Y. (2021). A Resource Constraint of the Energy Transition. https://kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/KCEP-Rare-Earth-Elements.pdf
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Serpell, Oscar; Paren, Benjamin; Chu, Wan-Yi (May 2021). "Rare Earth Elements, A Resource Constraint of the Energy Transition" (PDF). Kleinman Venter for Energy Policy. 1.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Junker, Jessica (April, 2024). "Threat of mining to African great apes". Science Advances. 10 – via Science Advances. Check date values in: |date= (help)


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