Course:CONS200/2023WT2/Return of the Humpback Whale to British Columbia

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Introduction

Humpback whales, (Megaptera novaeangliae), are a common sight along the coast of British Columbia, Canada. These majestic marine mammals are known for their acrobatic behavior, often breaching and slapping their fins on the water's surface. They can be found in the waters off the coast of British Columbia from spring to fall, with the highest numbers typically seen in the summer months. The distribution and abundance of humpback whales in British Columbia have varied dramatically through observed history.[1] Whaling practices, which primarily occurred from 1866 to 1908, reduced humpback numbers in the North Pacific from an estimated 15,000 individuals to as little as 1,400. This dramatic decrease seen primarily in Salish Sea populations resulted in no individual humpback whales recorded in the area for nearly 100 years.[2]

In 1997, one individual known as BCY0324, or 'Big Mama,' was recorded in the spotted in Juan de Fuca Strait recording the first instance of a humpback remaining in the area for an extended period of time since 1911.[2] The return of BCY0324 resulted in a chain reaction of ecological shift in humpback whale sightings in the area, with Big Mama returning from Hawai'i after each breeding season with not only her own calves, but other adult whales as well. In present-day, an estimated 500 individuals return to the Salish Sea to feed every year.

Overview of Humpback Whales

Humpback whale photographed in Telegraph Cove, British Columbia.
Name

The North Pacific Humpback Whale, or Megaptera novaeangliae kuzira, gets its common name from the distinct hump on its back[3]. The humpback was given its scientific name Megaptera or “big winged” from its long flippers, and the name novaeangliae, references New England, the place where European whalers first spotted them. The final part of the whale's name, kuzira, refers to the North Pacific Subspecies of the humpback whale[3].

Description

The humpback whale is a baleen whale that can reach a length of 13 to 14 meters. A Baleen whale is one of two types of cetaceans: baleen and toothed. Cetaceans are a group of marine mammals that whales belong to, which also includes dolphins and porpoises. Baleen whales, or Mysticetes have two baleen plates which allow them to sieve prey, such as krill from the water[4].

The humpback whale has long flippers about a third of the length of its body, and has a variable white and back coloration[1].

Humpback tails, known as flukes, can be as wide as 5 and a half meters, and are serrated along the edges with pointed tips[3]. The coloration patterns on the fluke, along with the variation in size and shape are unique to each whale. The distinctive size, shape, and coloration of humpback flukes are unique enough to act as an identifier or a fingerprint for individual whales[3].

Significance

The humpback whale has historically been a significant spiritual figure in indigenous culture around the globe. These creatures are often seen as symbols of strength, wisdom, and connection to the natural world. In indigenous cultures that have a close relationship with the sea, such as the Maori of New Zealand, the Inuit of the Arctic, and the Native Hawaiian people, humpback whales are revered and respected. Coastal First Nations in the Pacific Northwest such as Makah and Nuu-chah-nulth historically hunted the whale for food, and the whale is culturally significant to these First Nations[1][5].

In Maori culture, humpback whales are known as "paikea," and they are considered to be descendants of Paikea, a legendary figure who is said to have arrived in New Zealand on the back of a whale. The humpback whale is seen as a guardian and protector of the oceans, and its presence is believed to bring good luck and prosperity[6].

Among the Inuit, humpback whales are revered for their strength and resilience in the harsh Arctic environment. They are often depicted in Inuit art and folklore as powerful beings that can communicate with humans and other animals. Humpback whales are also seen as providers, as they are a source of food and other resources for the Inuit people[7].

In Native Hawaiian culture, humpback whales are known as "koholā" and are considered to be sacred animals. They are believed to be manifestations of the sea god Kanaloa and are revered for their intelligence and grace. The annual migration of humpback whales to Hawaiian waters is celebrated with festivals and ceremonies, honoring the whales' return and their role in the natural world[8].

Among the Coast Salish of the northwestern pacific, humpback whales are known as "qaĺqaləx̌ič" in the Lushootseed language. They are seen as helpers and protectors of the people, often depicted in art and stories. Humpback whales are believed to have the ability to transform into human form and communicate with the spirit world, making them important figures in Coast Salish mythology[9]. The relationship between the Coast Salish and humpback whales is also reflected in their practices and ceremonies. For example, the annual return of the humpback whales during their migration is celebrated with feasts and dances, thanking the whales for their presence and the abundance they bring to the waters[9].

Nearshore distribution, and aerial displays make the humpback a popular species for whale watching, both in British Columbia and around the world[1].

COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) has designated the North Pacific population of humpback whales to be of special concern[1].

Reproduction

For the North Pacific population of humpback whales, courting, mating, and calving takes place during a period from September to May either before or during migration or while the whales are wintering in Mexico, Hawaii, or Central America. Female humpback whales have children every 2 to 3 years, with a 11 to 12 month period between conception and birth[1][3].

Life Cycle

Calves (baby whales) will accompany their mothers on the first migration north from the wintering grounds where they were born, to the feeding grounds where they are weaned[1]. Both male and female humpback whales reach maturity at 4 to 10 years of age, and have lifespans of 80 to 90 years[3].

Diet

During the warm periods of the year, humpback whales spend the majority of their time feeding to build up fat stores for the winter months[3]. The humpback whale filter-feeds on small crustaceans [mainly krill] and smaller fish. The humpback uses a variety of techniques to gather, herd, and disorient their prey, using bubbles, sounds and even their fins to corral their prey[3]. One specific technique they use is bubble net feeding; involving the use of curtains of air to condense prey towards the surface, where they are engulfed upwards as the whales lunge through the “net”. Various groups will use bubbles in similar ways, though feeding behavior has regional specialization among different populations[3].

Current Threats to Humpback Whales

Humpback whales are currently threatened by vessel strikes, fishing net entanglement, pollution, disease, habitat degradation, noise pollution, and unnecessary human interaction (e.g. unregulated whale watching).[10] While vessel strikes are one of the primary threats, entanglement issues are also of concern, as serious entanglement of larger baleen whales will often diminish the animal's ability to feed and will thus lead to a protracted death from starvation.[10] Habitat degradation is another key issue, as events like an oil spill can lead to the ingestion of contaminated prey, potential irritation of skin and eyes, inhalation of toxic fumes, and abandonment of polluted feeding habitat.[10] However, it is important to note that threats will vary by area.

Vessel Strikes

Vessel strikes are a conservation concern that threatens the continuing recovery of humpback whale populations along the coast of British Columbia.[11] In general, baleen whales have a greater risk of being struck by ships than any other marine mammal due to their large body size and from spending extended periods at or near the surface.[11] Furthermore, most baleen whales exhibit a limited ability to maneuver away from close-approaching vessels or show no attempt to avoid ships, which may be explained by habituation to vessel noise, failure to perceive the vessel as a threat, or unwillingness to cease important activities like feeding.[11] Because collisions are frequently unnoticed, and thus go unreported,[12] and because of the difficulty of recovering carcasses for necropsy, documented strike rates significantly underestimate the true impact of vessel collisions on whale populations.[11] However, humpback whales were the most frequently observed species bearing healed or partially healed wounds of vessel collision injuries.[11]

Moreover, the western portion of the Juan de Fuca Strait and the continental shield break off the west coast of Vancouver Island are relatively high-risk areas for lethal collisions with humpback whales due to the high intensity of vessel traffic and higher-than-average vessel speeds.[11] Additionally, areas with similarly high risks are found in "bottlenecks," regions where whale and boat densities are both concentrated.[12] Strike rates may also increase at times of the year when whales are more abundant in an area or when marine traffic is highest.[11] Nonetheless, mitigation efforts can include speed restriction zones, diverting traffic and establishing areas to be avoided, or passive acoustic monitoring-linked mariner notification systems.[11]

Fishery Interactions

Entanglement in fishing gear is a documented source of injury and mortality to cetaceans, including humpback whales.[13] Entanglement may result in only minor injury or may significantly affect individual health, reproduction, or survival.[13] Humpback whales in coastal, heavily fished regions have the highest risk of entanglement.[10] Independent juveniles are also more likely to become entangled than adults.[13] Whales can become entangled in gear of many types, such as long lines, drift nets, lobster trap lines, and mid-water trawls, but the largest problem lies with gill nets.[10] Entanglements around the tail are most common, but may also occur around the mouth and fins.[13] Of the nations reporting to the International Whaling Commission between 2003-2008, 64.7% noted humpback whale by-catch in their waters.[13] However, most entanglements and deaths go undetected and unreported.[13] Concerning fisheries themselves, apparent changes in ecosystem dynamics precipitated by overharvesting certain types of fish (e.g., finfish) have presumably affected large whales.[10]

Harassment

Whale-watch tourism is a global industry with considerable economic value for many coastal communities.[13] In response to whale-watching boats, the most commonly reported response of humpback whales was increased swimming speed during exposure.[13] Analyses using passive acoustic monitoring have also found a notable negative effect of boat presence on humpback whale song activity.[13] Further research is needed to assess the population-level effects of whale-watching on humpback whales. Other potential impacts from whale-watching include exposure to anthropogenic noise and the possibility of ship strikes.[13] Efforts to manage whale-watching operations include limiting the number of whale-watching vessels, limiting vessel approach distances to whales, specifying the manner of operating around whales, establishing limits to the period of exposure of the whales, and properly implementing regulations.[13]

Historical Whaling Practices

History of Whaling Laws and Policies

Jean Bungartz - Walfang nach neuster Fangmethode (1885)

States have territorial sovereignty over all the resources within their 'territorial seas,' meaning that any whale conservation measure taken here is voluntary only.[14] Furthermore, unless a voluntary agreement not to do so was signed, the coastal State may also legally choose to exploit and deplete the fisheries resources, including whales, in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).[14] On the high seas, all States have equal access to the waters and rights to use the economic resources contained in them; so here, whales belong to no one and are not subject to exclusive control by any State.[14] However, the International Court of Justice recognized that a general obligation exists for States to cooperate in fisheries conservation on the high seas.[14]

In 1931, a coordinated international effort to establish catch limits was made by the adoption of the Convention for the Regulation of Whaling.[14] The primary purpose of this convention was to preserve the commercial whaling industry since it depended on the abundance of whale populations.[14] In 1937, the Convention was amended to expand its protective measures, and in the following year, humpback whales received additional protection in the Convention's 1938 Protocol.[14] Yet, most attempts to protect whale stock under the Convention failed due to a lack of scientific knowledge, major whaling States refusing to sign the Convention, and no enforcement mechanisms.[14]

In 1946, following the need for a new international convention for the protection of whales, 15 States signed the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW).[14] The ICRW included the establishment of the International Whaling Commission (IWC), a central supervisory body with the authority to issue binding regulations for the protection of whales.[14] Although, because its initial membership was weighted towards pro-whaling governments, the IWC's whale conservation regulations were extremely lax during the 1940s-1960s.[14] In 1975, the Commission's work was strongly affected by the entry of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), a powerful tool for the protection of endangered species, including whales, which offers further authority, protection, and enforcement than the IWC.[14] Finally, in 1982, the IWC took a historic step when it approved a proposal banning commercial whaling indefinitely.[14] While this measure is still in place today, regardless, "exceptions" exist that allow states like Norway and Japan to continue the practice of commercial whaling.[15]

Indigenous Whaling

Whaling has historically been a prominent source of food and resources in the coastal first nations population of western North America. The Makah and Nuu-chah-nulth peoples' traditional territory is on the central Northwest coast, with the Makah in the Cape Flattery area at the northwestern tip of the Olympic Peninsula in Washington State, and the Nuu-chah-nulth on the west coast of Vancouver Island in British Columbia.[5] These groups pursued various species of whales, but the gray whales and humpback whales were the most sought-after and most commonly caught.[5] The Nuu-chah-nulth groups pursued the humpback whale over the gray whale, mostly likely because humpback whales were larger and more plentiful than gray whales, they contained more oil compared to other whales, and they stayed in the Nuu-chah-nulth marine space for longer periods.[5]

Background and Importance

Humpback whale jump and splash Photo by Giles Laurent

Historically, in the Makah and Nuu-chah-nulth Indigenous communities, whaling served as important social, subsidence, and ritual functions at the core of their societies and provided economic and spiritual significance.[5] Here, killing a whale was considered the highest glory, where the more whales a chief caught the more prestige, respect, and physical wealth he received.[5] Once a whale was caught, it was brought back to the community and ceremoniously divided up among villagers, providing an enormous amount of food.[5] However, in the 1850s, the Makah and Nuu-chah-nulth societies faced rapid economic, political, social, and cultural changes that ultimately ended whale hunts in the 1920s.[5] While their whaling tradition remained connected to their cultures and identities, eventually, losing whaling weakened the ritual and spiritual elements and social connections that were key to this tradition.[5]

After the recovery of whale populations from commercial whaling, specifically with the gray whale being removed from the Endangered Species list in 1994, both tribes announced they were going to revive their whale hunts. As Charlotte Coute states, "...Reviving our whaling tradition has cultural, social, and spiritual significance and will reaffirm our identities as whaling people, enriching and strengthening our communities by reinforcing a sense of cultural pride."[5] Thus, the revitalization of whaling can be tied to the larger cultural revitalization and self-determination movement that Native peoples throughout the world have been experiencing since the 1960s.[5] For example, the use of whale oil and meat has led to a return to healthier lifestyles and promotes greater unification from the harvesting, using, and sharing of these foods.[5]

Industrialized Whaling in BC

Indigenous whaling practices have had no significant effect on the deterioration of humpback whale populations in BC due to sustainable practices including use of all of the carcass and not overfishing the available population. Population decline due to whaling has largely been contributed to the industrialization of whaling practices for monetary purposes.

Modern, shore-based, commercial whaling in the northeastern Pacific started in 1905, fueled by the latest available technology such as exploding harpoons, steam-powered "catcher" vessels, and later, wireless telegraphy, spotting planes, and SONAR.[16] Between 1908 and 1967, British Columbian whaling stations killed at least 25,862 whales, 5,638 of those being humpback whales.[16] There were two eras of whaling in British Columbia, where humpback whales were among the species most heavily exploited during the first era.[16] Most of these whales were caught from the Vancouver Islands stations of Kyuquot and Sechart between 1905 and 1913.[16] Yet, from 1948 to 1949, humpback whales compromised 35% of British Columbia's whale catch due to the Coastal Harbour Operation.[17]

Peak catches for humpback whales typically occurred in August, and the ratio of males to females caught was constant over time.[16] Additionally, humpback whales were among the easiest and most lucrative to catch, because of their coastal distribution being the easiest targets for coastal whalers.[16] However, the preferential harvest of larger, more valuable animals led to the decline of humpback whales being killed.[16] Then, in 1967, commercial whaling ended in British Columbia as a result of the drastic decline of whale populations, competition from vegetable oils,[16] and the banning of whaling practices.[17]

Conservation of Humpback Whales

History and Policies

The humpback whale, through the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), was labeled as threatened in 1982 but later confirmed as special concern 2011. A species is considered "threatened" when it is likely to become endangered in the near future if conservation efforts are not undertaken, while "special concern" refers to a particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events. Species of special concern are monitored closely, and conservation efforts may be initiated to prevent them from becoming threatened or endangered. Despite the lessening numbers in the population, several policies have aided in the protection of these whales. Humpback whales are protected legally under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Several acts ensure protection of the species such as the Species at Risk Act, Marine Mammal Regulations, and the Fisheries Act.[1] Due to the history of harmful whaling practices and the declining population, legal action was needed to conserve humpback whales.

Species Recovery in BC

While the species is recovering along the coasts of British Columbia, the population of whales is not completely stable. During 2004-2018, approximate rates of abundance increased 4-8% per year, with around 4,000 adult whales in 2018.[1] Commercial whaling had decreased the entire population of humpback whales in BC. However, a survey conducted in 2018 revealed an estimated 12,460 humpbacks, with approximately 7,725 mature individuals present in Canadian Pacific waters.[1] The humpback population continues to rise, despite the various setbacks.

Rescuers free humpback whale from life-threatening entanglement from fishing gear.

Conservation Strategies

As human impact was a large threat to the population of humpbacks in earlier years, conservation interventions were necessary to work to eliminate the extinction risk of the species in Canadian Pacific waters. The most influential strategy of conservation for whaling includes government action, legally protecting the whales and preventing devastating whaling practices, along with regulation and management of fishing practices. Humpback whales are protected legally under several acts and established conventions mentioned above, working to ban commercial whaling. Protection of the species allowed growth in the population after a heavy decline in numbers. Monitoring migratory patterns and habitat ranges of humpbacks may limit human collision with populations of whales, decreasing the amount of vessel strikes and interference with whale routes. Studies predicting whale movement can be used to regulate boating and fishing routes, minimizing the impact of human activity such as boat strikes and entanglement in fishing gear.[18][19] Additionally, habitat protection can protect the growing population with regulations on oil and natural gas extraction.[18] As humpback whales are vital to marine ecosystem health and carbon capture in the environment, strategies including legal actions, habitat protection of the oceans, preventing vessel collisions, and continued education of humpback whales will support overall conservation of the species along the coasts of BC.

History of Humpback whale Distribution in BC

Decline of Humpback Whale Populations in BC

Like many whale species, humpback whales were heavily targeted by commercial whaling fleets in the 19th and early 20th centuries. This led to a drastic decline in their numbers worldwide, including in BC waters. Abundance before industrialized whaling practices is poorly known, but there were an estimated minimum of approximately 4000 whales resided in the Puget sound and Salish Sea in the population in 1905, before large-scale whaling operations began[20]. 5,638 humpback whales were recorded to be hunted during the early 1900s, and more were suspected to be caught in unregulated circumstances. An estimated 1500 humpback whales remained in the North Pacific ocean entirely at the end of the whaling era—with none of these individuals continuously wintering in the Salish Sea.

For many years, until all whaling ended in 1965, humpbacks were very scarce in the North Pacific, with some occasionally seen in Hawaii in the 1970s, increasing gradually through the 1980s and 1990s[21]. No confirmed continuous humpback whale sightings were recorded off the coast of British Columbia until 1997 [21].

Reintroduction of Humpbacks
Example of fluke pattern. Picture of Big Mama's underfluke

Humpback whales were one of the first species protected under Canada's Endangered Species Conservation Act, the predecessor the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1970. When the ESA was passed in 1973, the humpback whale was listed as endangered globally, including in British Columbia which produced strict guidelines on whaling, boat traffic and other deterrents in the area [22]. The first recorded individual to winter in the Salish Sea was an adult female Humpback whale known as Big Mama (#BCY0324) in 1997 near Race Rocks on the southern tip of Vancouver Island. In current-day ecological identification, the practice of identifying an animal via fluke (tail) patterns became a more adapted process, allowing specialists in the field to identify returning individuals. This individual was recorded the next year in 1998, and was recorded for a third time in 2001. This sparked extremely positive feedback in the cetacean community as this was the first whale to be seen through multiple winters to return to the west coast of BC for multiple years.[23]

The year 2003 marked a historic year for humpback whales in British Columbia. For the first time in over 100 years, it was recorded that Big Mama was observed with a calf (#BCX1057, or Divot), after migrating from Hawai'i the month prior. In the years following 2003, more adult humpbacks were observed in the area following #BCY0324's annual return. Since Big Mama’s first visit, more than 500 individual humpbacks have been documented in the Salish Sea over the summer and fall.[23] Big mama has since mothered seven calves since 2023, and six have returned to the Salish sea annually to winter.

Current British Columbia Humpback Whale Distribution

The distribution of humpback whales in British Columbia has varied dramatically since their return in 1997. The species ranges widely throughout nearshore, continental shelf, and deep oceanic waters off the Pacific coast.  They are also found in inlets and fjords along the mainland coast.  Most sightings are concentrated within 15-20 km of shore.  They can be found in BC waters in all months of the year, though they are most commonly seen from May through October.[20].The range of humpback whales in BC has expanded considerably over the past two decades, and habitats utilized by the species prior to depletion from whaling are being re-occupied (e.g., Barkley Sound, Queen Charlotte Strait).  Densities of humpback whales in particular areas can vary considerably both within and between years, likely as a result of changes in prey availability.  

Humpback whale abundance in the North Pacific has recently been estimated at about 20,000 individuals[20]. In 2022, 396 individual humpbacks were documented in the waters around Vancouver Island, an increase from the 293 humpbacks recorded in the same area five years ago and the highest number in a single year since record-keeping started more than two decades ago[23]. The majority of sightings are recorded at the southern-most point of Vancouver island, but humpback whales have been recorded across almost the entire coast of British Columbia.

Conclusion

Humpback whale populations in British Columbia has proven to be resilient and able to recover. Once abundant along the coast, humpback whales faced a dramatic decline in numbers due to commercial whaling practices in the 19th and 20th centuries. By the end of the whaling era, their population in the North Pacific had plummeted from an estimated 15,000 individuals to as few as 1,400.

The absence of humpback whales in British Columbia's waters was notable for nearly a century, with no recorded sightings in the area for almost 100 years. However, in 1997, a significant event marked the beginning of their return. A single individual, known as BCY0324 or 'Big Mama,' was spotted in the Juan de Fuca Strait, marking the first instance of a humpback whale remaining in the area for an extended period since 1911. Big Mama's return sparked a chain reaction, with more humpback whales returning to the region each year, including her own calves and other adult whales.

Since Big Mama's return, over 500 individual humpback whales have been documented in the Salish Sea over the summer and fall. The species' range in British Columbia has expanded considerably, with sightings recorded in nearshore, continental shelf, and deep oceanic waters off the Pacific coast. While their distribution and abundance have varied, humpback whales can now be found in BC waters in all months of the year, though they are most common from May through October.

Conservation efforts, including legal protections and monitoring programs, have played a crucial role in the recovery of humpback whales in British Columbia. While the population has shown signs of recovery, humpback whales still face threats such as vessel strikes, entanglement in fishing gear, pollution, and habitat degradation. Continued conservation efforts are essential to ensure the long-term survival of humpback whales in BC waters and to maintain the ecological balance of this region.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Ford, John (December 2022). Whitehead, Hal (ed.). "COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae kuzira) in Canada 2022". Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Blake, Melissa (May 23, 2022). "Family Matters: Meet Big Mama!".
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 "Species Directory Humpback Whale". NOAA Fisheries. 6 February 2024.
  4. ↑ "Whales". NOAA Fisheries.
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 Cote, Charlotte (2015). Spirits of our Whaling Ancestors: Revitalizing Makah and Nuu-chah-nulth Traditions. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 3–42. ISBN 9780295997582.
  6. ↑ Morris, Bill. "CALL OF THE WHALES Ramari Stewart on keeping traditions alive".
  7. ↑ "Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises".
  8. ↑ "Native Hawaiian Culture".
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Allen, Daniel (7:15am, 16 Jan 2022). "How the return of humpback whales to Canada's Salish Sea is boosting tourism and conservation". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Clapham, Phillip J.; Young, Sharon B.; Brownell Jr., Robert L. (1999). "Baleen whales: conservation issues and the status of the most endangered populations". Mammal Review. 29: 35–60.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Nichol, Linda M.; Wright, Biranna M.; O'Hara, Patrick; Ford, John K.B. (May 4th, 2017). "Risk of lethal vessel strikes to humpback and fin whales off the west coast of Vancouver Island, Canada". Endangered Species Research. 32: 373–390. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Williams, Rob; O'Hara, Patrick (2010). "Modelling ship strike risk to fin, humpback and killer whales in British Columbia, Canada". Journal of Cetacean Research and Management. 11: 1–8.
  13. ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 13.10 Fleming, Alyson; Jackson, Jennifer (March 2011). "Global Review of Humpback Whales". NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS: 15–27.
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 14.12 Rose, Gregory; Crane, Saundra (1993). "The Evolution of International Whaling Law". Greening International Law. London: Routledge. pp. 159–181. ISBN 9781315070353.
  15. ↑ "Commercial Whaling". International Whaling Commission. March 17, 2024.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 Gregr, Edward J.; Nichol, Linda; Ford, John K. B.; Ellis, Graeme; Trites, Adrew W. (October 2000). "Migration and Population Structure of Northeastern Pacific Whales of Coastal British Columbia: An Analysis of Commerical Whaling Records from 1908-1967". Marine Mammal Science. 16 (4): 699–727.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Pike, G. C.; MacAskie, I. B. (1969). Marine Mammals of British Columbia. Ottawa: Fisheries Research Board of Canada. pp. 37–38.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Ashe, Erin; Wray, Janie; Picard, Christopher R.; Williams, Rob (September 2013). Guichard, Frédéric (ed.). "Abundance and Survival of Pacific Humpback Whales in a Proposed Critical Habitat Area". PLoS One. 8(9): e75228. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0075228 Check |doi= value (help).
  19. ↑ Dransfield, Andrea; Hines, Ellen; McGowan, Jennifer; Holzman, Barbara; Nur, Nadav; Elliott, Meredith; Howar, Julie; Jahncke, Jaime (November 2014). "Where the whales are: using habitat modeling to support changes in shipping regulations within National Marine Sanctuaries in Central California". Endangered Species Research. 26: pp. 39-57. doi:10.3354/esr00627.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 DFO. 2009. Recovery potential assessment of humpback whales, Pacific population. DFO Can. Sci. Advis. Sec. Sci. Advis. Rep. 2009/048
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Murray, Anne. "Big Mama and the return of the humpback whales to the salish sea".
  22. ↑ Endangered Species Coalition. (2014, April 22). Humpback Whale - Endangered Species Coalition. https://www.endangered.org/animals/humpback-whale/
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Klostar, Darron (June 23, 2023). "Humpbacks, including Poptart, return to Salish Sea with new calves". Times Colonist.


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