Course:CONS200/2023WT2/Biocultural Diversity: From Concept to Practice in Hawaii

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Biocultural Diversity

Biocultural diversity, as defined by Luisa Maffi is “the diversity of life in all its manifestations: biological, cultural and linguistic - which are interrelated (and possibly coevolved) within a complex socio-ecological adaptive system.”[1] This concept helps highlight the mutual importance and the need to consider both aspects when addressing conservation challenges, and sustainable development. Biocultural diversity underscores the idea that human cultures and the environment are built upon each other, recognizing the way they influence and shape each other in complex ways. As a result, preserving both biological and cultural diversity is key to maintaining ecosystem health worldwide. The origin of biocultural diversity can be traced back to 1988, during the First International Congress of Ethnobiology in Belem, Brazil, where the “The Declaration of Belem” recognized the “inextricable link” between biological and cultural diversity.[2] The term “Biocultural Diversity” itself however gained traction in the early 21st century, with various publications adopting the biocultural diversity framework, helping solidify the concept among conservation and academic circles, emphasizing the need for integrated approaches. Today, biocultural diversity continues to inform and shape conservation efforts and policies, advocating for the inclusion of Indigenous and local knowledge, community-based approaches, and highlighting the importance of both cultural and biological diversity when it comes to conservation efforts.

Application of Biocultural Diversity

Biocultural diversity is used in various ways, and many different methods are employed in its usage when applying the biocultural diversity concept. As listed below, here are some of the various methods in which biocultural diversity may be applied.

  • Recognition of Interconnectedness: Biocultural diversity highlights the interconnectedness between biological and cultural systems and the knowledge that both human culture and biodiversity are deeply connected. This recognition informs research, policy, and efforts by emphasizing the need to address both sides of conservation, cultural and biological.
  • Integration of Traditional Knowledge: Indigenous and traditional knowledge systems, referred to as traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) are valued for their insight into local ecosystems, and conservation strategies. Biocultural diversity emphasizes the importance of integrating traditional knowledge into conservation efforts and recognizes the role that it plays in preservation and conservation.
  • Community-Based Conservation: Biocultural diversity supports community-based approaches to conservation, which helps empower local communities to actively participate in decision-making processes and management efforts. By involving communities in these conservation efforts, it can help preserve cultural heritage and foster a sense of ownership and responsibility.
  • Policy and Advocacy: Biocultural diversity aims to inform and shape policy and advocacy efforts, both at conserving biodiversity, while also supporting the Indigenous and local population. It helps underline the importance of culturally appropriate and equitable policies that respect the rights and interests of these diverse cultural groups. Biocultural diversity works to promote policies that recognize and protect Indigenous lands, territories and resources.

Biocultural Diversity in Hawaii

Pre-Colonial Biocultural Diversity

The ʻAlekoko Fishpond, located on the island of Kaua'i, estimated to have been constructed in the 15th century

Before colonization, Hawaii thrived with biocultural diversity as the island’s vast ecosystems and the Indigenous Hawaiian culture were flourishing. Indigenous Hawaiians revered the land and sea, cultivating a deep spiritual connection and ethic known as ‘Aloha ʻĀina’. Translating to ‘love of the land’, this harmonious relationship between the people and nature nurtured a cultural tapestry woven with storytelling, music, and art, celebrating the interconnectedness of all living beings. Ranging back hundreds of decades, Indigenous Hawaiians relied on their intimate knowledge of the land and sea to sustain themselves, such as practices like ahupua’a land management[3] and fishpond aquaculture[4]. Passed down from generation to generation, Hawaii’s pre-colonial biocultural diversity represents the delicate web of life, shaped by Indigenous knowledge, wisdom, and reverence for the natural world.

Colonization and Consequences

Portrait of Captain James Cook

In 1778, Captain James Cook of England arrived in Hawaii by accident and was the first foreigner to make contact with the Native Hawaiians.[5] Upon Captain Cook’s arrival, the Native Hawaiians believed him to be a god and thus welcomed him and his crew onto the islands. The Natives were consequently exposed to foreign diseases such as smallpox, decimating the Native populations to 10% of its pre-colonial population of 300,000 by 1890. Foreign missionaries began arriving in the 1820s and began imposing their religious and Western ideals, undermining many Hawaiian cultural practices such as hula which was used to pass down ancestral knowledge. In 1830, Ka’ahumanu the queen and regent of the kingdom of Hawaii, eliminated the cultural practice of hula labelling it unlawful after converting to Christianity as she was convinced by the missionaries that the tradition encouraged lewdness. Another imposed value was land ownership. In 1850 the Alien Land Ownership Act was created which permitted foreign ownership of Hawaiian lands. European and American citizens integrated themselves into many roles in Hawaiian society, with sugar and pineapple plantations being predominantly owned by American businessmen who followed the presidential order to overthrow the last remaining monarch in 1893. By 1898 America had successfully illegally annexed the Kingdom of Hawaii.[5] As to this day, there is no treaty of annexation between Hawaii and America, some believe that Hawaii is an independent nation under military occupation.

Consequences

Biological

Since European contact, 66% of Hawaii’s endemic land-dwelling birds have gone extinct.[6] The extinctions are largely due to the introduction of invasive species such as rats, pigs, goats, exotic vegetation, and grasses.[6] The invasive pigs intensify environmental degradation by direct consumption of native plants and by facilitating the dispersal of seeds from invasive plants, such as strawberry guava.[7] The introduction of invasive species to Hawaiian islands has promoted environmental degradation since colonization as less than 10% of Oahu’s original native forest remains.[6]

Cultural

Cultural losses due to colonization were extreme due to the culture's prohibition during colonization, distortion in Western pop culture and can most easily be identified in the Western portrayal of Hawaii and the cultural practice of hula. Through the 1900s Hawaii was represented in Western pop culture as a paradise for white men.[8] The hula girl, whitened and hyper-sexualized, became the dominant icon of Hawaiian culture and exemplifies the sexualization and misappropriation of Hawaiian culture.[8] This ultimately led to the Western idea of Hawaiian people as weak and primitive with Native Hawaiian leaders as incapable savages in need of Western Colonization.[5] Hula, a once deep and meaningful tradition, became commodified for tourism in luxury hotels, where humans were displayed similarly to zoo animals.[8] This representation has led many Native Hawaiians to believe the growth of the tourism industry has degraded their cultural values.[5]  

Social

The manipulated perspective of Hawaiian culture and Hawaiian people, particularly Hawaiian women, has had severe impacts on their social well-being.  The objectification and sexualization of Hawaiian women have impacted the way they are viewed and treated.[5] In Hawaii, one in seven women has experienced rape, and medical reports reveal 50,000 women ages 18-64 are victims of domestic abuse annually.[5] Native Hawaiians now represent 42% of Hawaii’s homeless population at 7,921 and have lower incomes and higher rates of poverty in comparison to other ethnicities residing in Hawaii.[8]

Language

Whilst in 1831 the Hawaiian language was almost universal, after 1896, the Hawaiian language was banned from being spoken in schools until as late as 1987 in some areas.[5] In 1906 the Programme of Patriotic Exercises in Public Schools began with the intention to Americanize Hawaiian children who were severely punished if they spoke Hawaiian in school.[8] By 1985, only 32 people on Ni’ihau island could speak Hawaiian fluently which was the only language on the islands before colonization.[8] The Hawaiian language was expected to be extinct by 2000, but in the early 1970’s the Hawaiian Renaissance began which aimed to revive many of the previously discouraged cultural practices and the Hawaiian language.[8]

The Hawaiian Renaissance

Kahoolawe from the air while flying over Alalakeiki Channel in Hawaii, USA

The Hawaiian Renaissance refers to the cultural revitalization movement that emerged roughly two hundred years after Euro-colonial contact. The Renaissance began in the 1960s and saw its peak in the 1970s and is often cited as a global model for biocultural restoration and sustainability.[9][10] The movement emerged as descendants of the Kānaka Maoli, an Indigenous group in Hawaii, were frustrated with the continued erasure of their ancestors’ culture.[9] As a response to the sustained cultural suppression experienced by the Indigenous groups, the movement sought to reclaim and rejuvenate Hawaiian traditions. In addition to advocating for cultural revitalization, this transformative societal movement was intertwined with issues such as land rights, environmental conservation, and militarization.

Key Figures and Initiatives

A photo of Herb Kawainui Kāne, one of the key figures in the renaissance of Hawaiian culture

The Hawaiian Renaissance was triggered by a growing sense of cultural pride and activism among Indigenous Hawaiians. Several key figures such as George Helm, George Jarrett Helm Jr., and Kekuni Blaisdell advocated for the protection of Hawaiian rights and resources.[11] One of the pivotal events was the occupation of the island of Kahoʻolawe in 1976 by activists protesting the military's use of the island for bombing practice. This act of civil disobedience drew national attention to the issues facing native Hawaiians and rallied support for cultural revitalization efforts.[12]


Organizations such as the Polynesian Voyaging Society, founded in 1973 by Herb Kawainui Kāne, Ben Finney, and Tommy Holmes, played a crucial role in reviving traditional navigation techniques and promoting pride in Hawaiian seafaring heritage.[13] The construction and voyages of the traditional Polynesian double-hulled canoe, Hōkūleʻa, symbolized a reconnection with ancestral knowledge and a resurgence of cultural identity.[13]

Language Revitalization

Central to the Hawaiian Renaissance was the revival of the Hawaiian language, which had been on the brink of extinction. Efforts to preserve and promote the language were led by organizations such as the ʻAha Pūnana Leo, founded in 1983 by Larry Kimura, a linguist, and Kauanoe Kamanā, an educator.[14] The ʻAha Pūnana Leo established Hawaiian language immersion preschools, known as Pūnana Leo, where children were taught exclusively in Hawaiian from a young age.[14] This immersive approach proved highly successful in revitalizing the language and fostering a new generation of fluent Hawaiian speakers.

Impact

The Hawaiian Renaissance had a profound impact on Hawaiian society, contributing to a resurgence of cultural pride and self-determination. It empowered Indigenous Hawaiians to reclaim their heritage, challenge colonial narratives, and assert their rights to land, resources, and self-governance. Through cultural revitalization efforts, including language preservation, traditional navigation, hula, music, and art, the movement has helped to foster a renewed sense of identity and belonging among native Hawaiians.[9]

Legacy

The legacy of the Hawaiian Renaissance continues to shape contemporary Hawaiian society, influencing education, politics, and cultural practices. The revitalization of the Hawaiian language, in particular, has been a cornerstone of cultural resurgence, serving as a symbol of resilience and a testament to the strength of indigenous knowledge and traditions in the face of colonialism.[9] The movement's emphasis on cultural pride, community empowerment, and environmental stewardship remains relevant in efforts to address ongoing challenges facing Indigenous Hawaiians and to promote a more inclusive and sustainable future for Hawaii.

Current Remedial Actions

Currently, there are many issues in the Hawaiian Islands but there are also many groups implementing and developing solutions. These solutions work to protect and further develop the biological, linguistic, social, and cultural aspects of the Hawaiian Islands, ensuring the preservation and revitalization of their biocultural diversity.

Hawaii Conservation Alliance (HCA)

The HCA supports native plant restoration initiatives across Hawaii. They work with conservation organizations, botanical gardens, and community groups to propagate and reintroduce native plants to their natural habitats within Ahupua'a boundaries while contributing to the restoration of native ecosystems and biodiversity.[15] In 2022, the Hawaii Conservation Alliance organized conservation training sessions, facilitated informational papers on critical conservation issues, and gathered information for the conservation assessment of Hawaii. This made great strides in the conservation of Hawaii's botanical biodiversity and helped to strengthen the community.[15]

Kamehameha Schools' Land Management Division

This division focuses on preserving and managing lands with cultural significance in Hawaii. They collaborate with cultural practitioners, educators, and conservationists to integrate cultural practices into land stewardship to ensure that biocultural values are respected and upheld.

Currently working on their master plan, Kamehameha Schools (KS) envisions evolving into a hub of 'āina momona, fostering a bountiful food system that generates jobs and economic opportunities within the community. This vision seeks to stimulate commerce rooted in community collaboration, promote health and wellness across individuals, and provide educational opportunities to cultivate future native servant leaders.[16] By optimizing its economic portfolio, KS aims to reinvest in its mission, strengthening the local economy while honouring the land legacy of Abner Pākī and Victoria Kamāmalu in the Heʻeia Ahupuaʻa. This area encompasses 507 acres overall and 55 acres specifically for Commercial Gross Leasable Area (GLA) totalling 1,203,389 square feet. With this project, KS aims to protect the linguistic, social, and cultural aspects of the island’s people.[16]

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

Managed by The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the State of Hawaii, this marine protected area encompasses the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Collaborative efforts involve Indigenous communities, researchers, and conservationists to protect marine biodiversity, restore coral reefs, and promote sustainable fishing practices that align with biocultural restoration goals.

A Map of the Boundaries of the PMDP

In 2022, a team from the Papahānaumokuākea Marine Debris Project (PMDP), a Hawaii-based non-profit organization, embarked on a mission to conduct extensive marine debris cleanup within the Monument. Spanning two 30-day cruises, the team successfully removed a total of 202,950 pounds of marine debris.[17] This significant effort marks a milestone for PMDP, bringing their cumulative total to half a million pounds since they initiated large-scale cleanups two years ago. These annual cleanup expeditions play a crucial role in reducing entanglement risks for protected wildlife species, mitigating coral reef damage, and decreasing the likelihood of plastic ingestion for seabirds. The PMDP is an ongoing initiative aimed at enhancing biological protection and restoration within these territories.[17]

University of Hawaii's Center for Biocultural Restoration

This center focuses on research, education, and outreach related to biocultural restoration in Hawaii. They collaborate with local communities, government agencies, and international partners to develop and implement interdisciplinary approaches that integrate ecological conservation with cultural revitalization efforts.[18]

The University of Hawaii is currently working on linking local ecological knowledge, ecosystem services, and community resilience to environmental and climate change in the Pacific Islands. Led by PI Tamara Ticktin from UHM Botany and a team of researchers, this project explores the link between local knowledge, ecosystem services, and community resilience to environmental change in the Pacific Islands. They focus on Fijian coastal communities and assess different land and ocean management practices across three study sites; Kaʻūpūlehu and Haʻena in Hawaii, and Kubulau in Fiji.[18]

Global Application of Biocultural Restoration

State of Biocultural Diversity

The Index of Biocultural Diversity (IBCD) aggregates measures of both cultural and biological diversity to provide a comprehensive assessment of biocultural diversity on a country-by-country basis. Comprising three components - biocultural diversity richness, areal adjustment, and population adjustment - the IBCD reveals patterns of biocultural diversity around the world. The results of the assessment show three areas with exceptionally high biocultural diversity which include countries of various sizes and populations.[19]

  • The Amazon Basin; more specifically Brazil, Columbia, Peru, Ecuador, French Guiana, Suriname, and Guyana.
  • Central Africa; more specifically Nigeria, Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Gabon, and Congo.
  • Indomalaysia/Melanesia; more specifically Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Solomon Islands.

  • The world's four most bioculturally diverse countries; Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Cameroon, and Colombia appear in the top 10 for each unique component of the index as well.[19]

Reports also indicate a concerning decline in the world's languages and cultural traditions. Over 50% of the world's languages are endangered, with predictions suggesting that up to 90% may vanish by 2100.[20] Ongoing studies aim to deepen our understanding of biocultural diversity, its patterns, and the factors influencing its persistence or loss worldwide. New methodologies such as the Index of Linguistic Diversity (ILD) and the Vitality Index of Traditional Environmental Knowledge (VITEK) have been developed to monitor trends in linguistic and traditional knowledge diversity.[20]

Existing Success Stories

Globally there have been several diverse approaches towards biocultural diversity restoration. Many of these efforts have combined cultural heritage and ecological conservation, yielding successful biocultural diversity restoration. Of the biocultural diversity restoration techniques used globally, many are similar to those practiced in Hawaii.

New Zealand - Te Mana o Te Wai

Similar to the approach of Hawaii’s Ahupua’a Restoration, New Zealand is also integrating Indigenous cultural values, traditional knowledge, and practices such as the Māori concept of kaitiakitanga (guardianship) into the natural resource management of Te Mana o Te Wai, a freshwater resource.[21] Both successes involve governance collaborations and recognition of their respective natural elements (Ahupua’a and Te Mana o Te Wai) as living entities with intrinsic rights.[22] The recognition of Te Mana O Te Wai as an entity has led to legal and policy changes providing it protection. Consequently due to the biocultural diversity restoration efforts the water quality and ecosystem health has improved by promoting sustainable resource management and cultural revival.[21]

United States - Blackfeet Nation Bison Restoration

During the 19th and 20th centuries bison, an ecological and cultural keystone species, saw a dramatic decline in their population, to near extinction in many areas due to settlers over-hunting.[23] The Blackfeet Nation in Montana, USA are currently making significant efforts to restore the populations of bison on their lands. To ensure ecological recovery, cultural revitalization and economic sustainability of the tribe, the Blackfeet Nation, in collaboration with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Wildlife Conservation Society are restoring the habitat of bison and reintroducing them into their original habitat.[23] On June 26, 2023, 25 bison were released into the Chief Mountain area.[24] Through grassland management and reintroduction of the native species, other wildlife species that rely on the health of grassland ecosystems have returned.[23] These environmental and cultural efforts reflect the importance of Traditional Knowledge and collaboration in biocultural diversity and its restoration.

Benefits of Application

Biocultural restoration isn’t exclusive to Hawaii, and benefits derived from Hawaii can be leveraged around the world. By successfully implementing remedial actions from Hawaii globally, various parts of the world can take advantage of biocultural restoration to its fullest. Among the numerous benefits, biocultural restoration also brings about:

  • Ecosystem Resilience: Biocultural diversity enhances ecosystem resilience by promoting species diversity, genetic variability, and ecosystem stability. Indigenous knowledge and cultural practices often involve sustainable land use and resource management that help maintain healthy ecosystems.[25]
  • Food Security and Nutrition: Traditional agricultural practices and Indigenous food systems contribute to food security and nutrition, particularly in rural and Indigenous communities. Biocultural diversity helps support a wide range of locally adopted crops, livestock breeds, and wild foods, ensuring access to diverse and nutritious diets.[26]
  • Cultural Heritage and Identity: Biocultural diversity is inseparable from cultural heritage and identity, and biocultural restoration helps reinforce the unique relationship between the people and the natural environment, ensuring the growth and protection of cultures.
  • Climate Change Adaptation: Indigenous knowledge often contains valuable insights into climate variability and season patterns, which can help create well-informed strategies for climate change adaptation. Traditional knowledge can help contribute to making sure ecosystems are prepared for climate change, and to ensure a bright future.[27]

Potential Success Stories

Globally there have been many successful conservation projects that have been famous examples of restoring biocultural diversity that have been thoroughly evaluated. The four examples below emphasize how past successful projects hopefully can inspire and inform new ones.

Torres Strait Islanders

The Torres Strait Islands, located between Australia and Papua New Guinea, are home to the Torres Strait Islanders, who have a deep cultural connection to the marine environment. The Islanders' language, art, music, and spirituality are all influenced by the rich biodiversity of the region, including the intricate reef systems and diverse marine life. Their importance is highlighted here as both Indigenous and Torres Strait Islander peoples are crucial for maintaining ecological stability.[28]

Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic

Indigenous peoples of the Arctic, such as the Inuit, Yupik, and Saami, have developed unique cultural adaptations to the extreme cold and seasonal changes of the region. Their traditional knowledge of wildlife migration patterns, ice conditions, and weather forecasting is vital for survival and is deeply intertwined with their cultural identity and way of life. Indigenous Arctic communities are influencing global conservation discussions by sharing their traditional wisdom and success in implementing sustainable practices and challenging colonial ideas about land, water, and species management.[29]

Māori of New Zealand:

The Māori people of New Zealand have a strong cultural connection to the land, known as "whenua," which is deeply rooted in their language, spirituality, and traditional practices. Their knowledge of native flora and fauna, including medicinal plants and conservation techniques, is passed down through oral traditions and is integral to their cultural heritage. Recently the Māori have been able to massively expand the land that they have under their control with occupations.[30][31][32]

References

  1. ↑ Maffi, Luisa (2007). The SAGE Handbook of Environment. Jules Pretty; et al. p. 269. ISBN 9781446250082.
  2. ↑ "Declaration of Belem". |first= missing |last= (help)
  3. ↑ 1. Kagawa 2. Vitousek, 1. Aurora K. 2. Peter M. (April 2012). "The Ahupua'a of Puanui: A Resource for Understanding Hawaiian Rain-Fed Agriculture". Pacific Science. 66: 161–172.
  4. ↑ Costa-Pierce, Barry (May 1987). "Aquaculture in Ancient Hawaii" (PDF). BioScience. Volume 37: 320–331.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Medeiros, M.Hawaiian history: The dispossession of native hawaiians' identity, and their struggle for sovereignty
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Winton, S. (2015, October 5). Killing Birds: Invasive species in Hawaii. Birds in a Changing World. https://blogs.nicholas.duke.edu/birds/killing-birds-invasive-species-in-hawaii/
  7. ↑ Nogueira-Filho, S. L. G., Nogueira, S. S. C., & Fragoso, J. M. V. (2009). Ecological impacts of feral pigs in the hawaiian islands. Biodiversity and Conservation, 18(14), 3677-3683. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9680-9
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Struggle for Hawaiian Cultural Survival. (n.d.). Ballard Brief. Retrieved April 14, 2024, from https://ballardbrief.byu.edu/issue-briefs/struggle-for-hawaiian-cultural-survival
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Casem, A. (2023). Challenges to local identity: The hawaiian cultural renaissance and sovereignty movement
  10. ↑ Chang, K., Winter, K. B., & Lincoln, N. K. (2019). Hawai‘i in focus: Navigating pathways in global biocultural leadership. Sustainability (Basel, Switzerland), 11(1), 283. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010283
  11. ↑ Goodyear-Kaʻōpua, N., Hussey, I., Wright, E. K., e-Duke Books Scholarly Collection 2014, & JSTOR eBooks: Open Access. (2014). A nation rising: Hawaiian movements for life, land, and sovereignty (1st ed.). Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822376552
  12. ↑ Mason, M. Speaking Truth to Power: The 1976 Protect Kaho’olawe ‘Ohana Movement and the Global Sixties.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Iaukea, L. K. (2021). Moving from the margins to the center: Elevating the space on Kahoʻolawe through a modern navigational platform
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Wilson, W. H., & Kamana, K. (2001). "mai loko mai 0 ka 'J'ini: Proceeding from a dream": The 'aha punana leo connection in hawaiian language revitalization. In L. Hinton, & K. Hale (Eds.), The green book of language revitalization in practice (pp. 147-176)https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004261723_014
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 2022 Annual Report. (n.d.). Hawaii Conservation Alliance. Retrieved April 14, 2024, from https://www.hawaiiconservation.org/annual-reports/
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Kohala Stewardship Program | Projects | A program of The Kohala Center. (n.d.). The Kohala Center. Retrieved April 14, 2024, from https://kohalacenter.org/ksp/projects
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. (n.d.). Retrieved April 14, 2024, from http://localhost:4000/
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 by. (n.d.). Linking local ecological knowledge, ecosystem services, and community resilience to environmental and climate change in Pacific Islands – Biocultural Initiative of the Pacific. Retrieved April 14, 2024, from https://manoa.hawaii.edu/biocultural/linking-local-ecological-knowledge-ecosystem-services-and-community-resilience-to-environmental-and-climate-change-in-pacific-islands/
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Loh, J., & Harmon, D. (2005). A global index of biocultural diversity. Ecological Indicators, 5(3), 231-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2005.02.005
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Maffi, L., & Woodley, E. (2012). Biocultural diversity conservation: a global sourcebook. Routledge.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Hanrahan, R. E. (n.d.). Towards Te Mana o te Wai: An exploration of partnership under the NPS-FM.
  22. ↑ Te Mana o te Wai: Māori Rights and Interests in Freshwater Bodies. (n.d.). Retrieved April 14, 2024, from https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au/items/308bd771-0644-4b85-b0eb-4d5b14d67c15
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Keyser, E. (2018). Collaborative Conservation: Reconnecting People, Land, and Bison through the Iinnii Initiative[University of Guelph]. http://hdl.handle.net/10214/14098
  24. ↑ At long last, the American buffalo has come home. (2024, April 15). Culture. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/blackfeet-buffalo-release-native-land
  25. ↑ 1. Campbell 2. Gallagher 3. Ens, 1. Bridget L. 2. Rachael V. 3. Emilié J. (2022). "Expanding the biocultural benefits of species distribution modelling with Indigenous collaborators: Case study from northern Australia". Biological Conservation. Volume 274.
  26. ↑ 1. Argumedo 2. Song 3. K. Khoury 4. Hunter 5. Dempewolf 6. Guarino 7. de Haan, 1. Alejandro 2. Yiching 3. Colin K. 4. Danny 5. Hannes 6. Luigi 7. Stef (October 2021). "Biocultural Diversity for Food System Transformation Under Global Environmental Change". Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems.
  27. ↑ Winters, Justin (February 20, 2024). "Protecting biocultural diversity is central to solving climate change". One Earth.
  28. ↑ Moate, M. (2023, October 16). How First Peoples Land Management Is Helping Conservation in Australia. Earth.Org. https://earth.org/first-peoples-australia/
  29. ↑ Buschman, V. Q., & Sudlovenick, E. (2023). Indigenous-led conservation in the Arctic supports global conservation practices. Arctic Science, 9(3), 714–719. https://doi.org/10.1139/as-2022-0025
  30. ↑ Rowe, D. (2021, August 31). Unstoppable movement: How New Zealand’s Māori are reclaiming land with occupations. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/01/unstoppable-movement-how-new-zealands-maori-are-reclaiming-land-with-occupations
  31. ↑ Nature and nurture: Connecting conservation and wellbeing. (n.d.). Retrieved April 14, 2024, from https://natlib.govt.nz/blog/posts/nature-and-nurture-connecting-conservation-and-wellbeing
  32. ↑ Whaanga, H., & Wehi, P. (2017). Rāhui and conservation? Māori voices in the nineteenth century niupepa Māori. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 47(1), 100–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/03036758.2016.1252408


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