Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Sustainable alternatives to cement production

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Introduction

Sustainable alternatives to cement production have emerged as a vital response to environmental concerns in the construction industry. These innovative methodologies aim to curb the ecological footprint associated with traditional cement manufacturing. By exploring diverse approaches such as integrating industrial by-products, innovating novel binder systems, and experimenting with bio-based materials, these alternatives strive to reduce carbon emissions, energy usage, and resource depletion. This topic delves into the realm of these evolving techniques, showcasing their potential to reshape construction practices by prioritizing sustainability while maintaining structural reliability. The discussion around these alternatives highlights their role in fostering a more eco-conscious future for the building sector.

Background on Cement Production

Joseph Aspdin

History of Cement Production

Being the largest manufactured product by mass, cement has played a crucial role in human development and infrastructure, ranking as the second most used material after water [1]. Dating back to prehistoric times, the use of limestone as a binding agent can be traced to the construction of the pyramids. Early humans employed various mortar variants to enhance the strength of their brickwork and objects [2].

In 1824, Joseph Aspin introduced Portland cement, which has since become the standard in everyday concrete. This cement consists of oxides of calcium, aluminum, and silicon. Isaac Johnson further improved its properties by adding 'clinker,' a synthetic material that reacts with water to create the hardened product, ultimately giving rise to modern-day cement[1] [3].

Growing Use of Cement

The use of cement surged in the 1850s, with extensive applications in projects like sculptures and bridges. By the late 19th century, hollow concrete blocks became a mainstream building technique for housing construction [3]. Cement has continued to be indispensable in the development of the modern world, with no viable substitute to meet the increasing demand for construction resources. Developing countries now account for over 80% of global cement production, and in 2014 China alone has surpassed the entire world's production from a decade earlier, illustrating the immense expansion of production[4]. With its cost-effective production, averaging roughly $100-120 USD per ton in North America and Europe, and less than $50 USD per ton in China, alternatives struggle to compete. Its versatile binding capabilities across diverse global conditions allows concrete to surpass alternatives, leading to an increasing dependence worldwide [1].

Concrete Cement Factory

Environmental Impact

It's important to note that while cement is essential for construction, it is a significant emitter of CO2 and carries negative environmental consequences. The impacts range from globally to local areas around the quarries and mills. The cement industry was responsible for 8-10% of greenhouse gas emissions in 2018 [1]. Surprisingly, around 40% of CO2 emissions are linked to cement production, while the remainder results from the decomposition of limestone and calcium carbonate [4]. The production of cement also generates atmospheric dust as a byproduct, with environmental impacts extending from the limestone quarry to the cement mill [5].

Reason to Search for Sustainable Alternatives

Addressing these environmental challenges is essential. Modifying the chemical composition of cement to create a more sustainable product that maintains its strength and capabilities poses a significant challenge [4]. Despite its cost-effectiveness, investing in alternative methods of cement production is a worthwhile endeavor [1]. There are various opportunities for making production more sustainable, ranging from finding alternatives to clinkers to reduce CO2 emissions to discovering alternative fuels and materials [4]. With cement not being the only building material available, movement away from cement can decrease its overall environmental impact.

Sustainable Alternatives to Cement

Hempcrete Construction

Hemp shivs

Hempcrete is a bio-composite building material that is a sustainable alternative to traditional concrete in construction. It is constructed from the inner core of the hemp plant (the shiv) cut into 5 mm-25mm pieces and with lime or pozzolana based binder.[6][7] The binder solution coats the "layed" hemp shives “setting” the shives to create strong, lightweight, and durable building material. depending on its application, the amount and type of binder used can differ. Like traditional concrete it can be assembled in 3 main ways [8] : molded in place, sprayed into shape, or assembled as premade blocks. Its main uses currently are walls, floors, and roofs, but with the continued growth of research into sustainable building materials, its uses will continue to grow.

Benefits of Hempcrete Construction

Hempcrete construction offers many benefits. One of the greatest parts about building with hemp is that its production and harvest is carbon negative. This means it absorbs more atmospheric carbon while growing than is emitted by the harvesting, processing, and transport of the plant This significantly reduces its overall carbon footprint on top of the fact that it uses less water and energy within its creation process than traditional concrete[9]. Hempcrete also has many structural benefits, like it's hygrothermal properties. It's a strong thermal insulator(1), which helps to maintain indoor temperatures, reducing energy use for heating and cooling. The Absorption properties of hempcrete can be beneficial in regions prone to seismic activity, as it can absorb some of the forces generated by earthquakes, a skill concert lacks[6]. Hempcrete is lighter than traditional concrete, which can make construction processes easier, and further reduce carbon footprint by requiring less heavy machinery. Furthermore, hemp is non-toxic and does not release harmful gasses or chemicals when eroded or damaged, unlike traditional concrete[10].

Negatives of Hempcrete Construction

Despite its many benefits, hempcrete also has some drawbacks. From a structural perspective, it has a lower overall compressive strength and density compared to traditional concrete [6]. This can limit its uses as it does not meet some building codes and regulations, posing challenges for its adoption in mainstream construction. Another construction challenge is its drying time, which is longer than most mixtures of traditional concrete [6].  From an economic perspective, hempcrete is currently more expensive in most places due to the lack of available hemp material (6). However, as the production of hemp increases and becomes more widespread, the cost of hempcrete could decrease.

Straw Bale Construction

Straw bale concrete is a sustainable construction method that uses whole bales of straw as a key component[11]. Straw, an agricultural waste product, is abundant, renewable, and has a lower carbon footprint compared to traditional concrete[11][12]. This makes straw bale concrete a very affordable and sustainable alternative to traditional concrete.

Straw bale walls before the exterior layer has covered the bales

Benefits of Straw Bale Construction

From a sustainability perspective, straw bale construction re-purposes agricultural waste, contributing to a circular economy[11]. It also has a lower carbon footprint due to the carbon sequestration during the growth of the straw[11]. In terms of building and structural benefits, straw bale concrete is a very good insulator, helping to maintain a stable indoor temperature and potentially reducing energy costs for heating and cooling[13]. The materials used are non-toxic, contributing to a healthier indoor environment[14]. Additionally, this method of construction causes less disturbance to ecosystems compared to traditional construction methods[11]. The walls of a straw bale house are breathable, which can contribute to a more comfortable indoor climate[13].

Negatives of Straw Bale Construction

Despite its many benefits, straw bale construction also has some drawbacks. From a structural perspective, it cannot withstand high moisture or long wet periods, which can limit its use in certain climates[15]. It may also attract pests, which can cause damage over time[16]. The walls of a straw bale house need to be very thick, which can reduce the amount of usable interior space[17]. Building with straw bales can be labor-intensive, particularly for long-term use, as straw bale houses require a lot of maintenance to keep them in good contition[11]. From a regulatory perspective, straw bale construction does not meet many building codes and regulations, which can pose challenges for its adoption in mainstream construction[18].

Bamboo Construction

Bamboo construction is a sustainable building method that utilizes bamboo, a rapidly renewable resource, as a primary building material[19]. Bamboo is known for its high strength-to-weight ratio, lightweight nature, and versatility, making it an excellent alternative to traditional construction materials[19].

A house using bamboo for its accents

Benefits of Bamboo Construction

From a sustainability perspective, bamboo is a highly renewable resource[19]. It grows rapidly, taking only 3-5 years to mature compared to the decades required for most timber species[19]. Additionally, bamboo requires low maintenance and fewer resources to cultivate, contributing to its low carbon footprint[20].

In terms of structural and building benefits, bamboo boasts a high strength-to-weight ratio, making it a robust and resilient material[19]. Its lightweight nature facilitates ease of transportation and handling during the construction process[21]. Furthermore, bamboo’s versatility allows it to be used in a variety of applications, from structural elements to decorative features[22].

Economically, bamboo is inexpensive and easy to farm and produce, making it an affordable alternative for construction[23].

Negatives of Bamboo Construction

Despite its many advantages, bamboo construction also presents some challenges. Structurally, bamboo is vulnerable to pests and decay, which can affect its durability and lifespan[24]. It is also flammable, posing potential fire hazards[25]. The strength of bamboo can be inconsistent, varying due to factors such as quality, species, age, and treatment or finish[21].

From a regulatory perspective, bamboo construction meets very few building regulations and codes, which can pose challenges for its adoption in mainstream construction[26]. Bamboo structures require regular maintenance, especially when under stress, adding to the long-term costs[26].

Furthermore, bamboo construction requires specialized skills and training to manipulate and use the material properly, which can limit its accessibility for some builders[27].

Geopolymer Concrete

Geopolymer concrete is a form that offers improved strength and durability[28]. Unlike ordinary concrete, it is produced by recycling waste materials such as fly ash produced by coal plants, ground granulated blast-furnace slab produced in ironworking, and rice husk ash, produced when byproducts of rice are burned[29].

Benefits of Geopolymer Concrete

Geopolymer concrete offers several advantages over traditional construction materials. Geopolymer concrete has an excellent mechanical strength, increased durability, and excellent stability in various environments[28]. Geopolymer concrete is also a very sustainable option, as it does not require as much energy to produce, and recycles by-products from other industries[28]. This recycling reduces the emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, thus reducing global warming to an extent[28]. The use of industrial waste can enormously enhance the resource efficiency of industrial branches generating such waste[28]. It also helps to significantly diminish the already existing dumps full of this waste, directly improving the environmental status of the effected areas[28].

Negatives of Geopolymer Concrete

Despite its advantages, geopolymer concrete presents the following challenges. There is a need for more extensive research to provide more economical and realistic criteria and guidelines for the design and use of geopolymer concrete in major structures[30]. Furthermore, the manufacturing process of geopolymer concrete can be complicated, as it must be very precise to avoid problems with the concrete[31].

While the use of construction wastes in the production of geopolymer concretes can contribute to its sustainability, it also presents challenges, such as understanding the impacts of different available construction wastes on health, and mechanical properties[32].

Recycled Concrete

Recycled concrete is a great way to reduce the carbon footprint of a project and keep concrete out of landfills. By using crushed up “old” concrete as the aggregate for new projects, we can reduce consumption!

Benefits of Recycled Concrete

Concrete Ruble which can be reused

The advantage of using recycled concrete is how it decreases industrial consumption. By repurposing demolished or unwanted concrete, it stops concrete from ending up in landfills and reduces the amount of materials and energy needed for a project.  Recycled concrete also maintains most of the strength that concrete has when first poured[33]

Negatives of Recycled Concrete

Despite its environmental benefits, recycled concrete does have some drawbacks. The cost of recycling concrete can vary greatly by region, making it more expensive in some regions. In terms of performance, recycled concrete has very similar properties to new concrete but may lack some strength or ability to handle stress, compared to traditional concrete[34]. This can limit its use in certain applications. Furthermore, while recycled concrete reduces the need for raw materials, it still requires the use of chemicals like pozzolans, water retarders, plasticizers, set retarders, and bonding agents.[34]  These factors can add to the complexity and cost of using recycled concrete.

Challenges and Solutions

The transition from traditional concrete to sustainable alternatives is not without its challenges. However, with every challenge comes an opportunity for innovative solutions.

Challenges

  1. Technical challenges: The physical and chemical properties of sustainable alternatives are often different from those of traditional concrete. For instance, some alternatives may not possess the same compressive strength or durability, potentially limiting their applicability in certain structural contexts.
  2. Economic factors: The economic viability of sustainable alternatives can vary significantly. While some alternatives may be cost-effective due to lower production costs, others might be more expensive due to factors such as the cost of raw materials, the complexity of production processes, and the incorporation of advanced technologies.
  3. Regulatory and policy issues: Existing building codes and regulations are predominantly based on traditional construction materials and methods. This can pose significant challenges for the adoption of sustainable alternatives, which may not conform to these established standards.

Solutions

  1. Research and Development: Persistent research and development efforts could potentially enhance the properties of sustainable alternatives, bringing them closer to, or even surpassing, the performance of traditional concrete. This means the exploration of new materials, the optimization of production processes, and the advancement of relevant technologies.
  2. Economic Incentives: The implementation of economic incentives by governmental bodies and organizations can stimulate the use of sustainable alternatives. These incentives can take various forms, including subsidies, tax breaks, and funding for research and development initiatives.
  3. Policy Changes: Revisions to building codes and regulations can facilitate the integration of sustainable alternatives into regular construction. This could involve updating standards to accommodate sustainable materials and methods, as well as providing comprehensive guidance and resources for builders and developers.

By addressing these challenges and implementing these solutions, we can pave the way for the widespread use of sustainable alternatives to concrete in construction, creating a more sustainable and resilient building environment.

Successful Implementations of Sustainable Cement Alternatives

High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete in California's Infrastructure

California's extensive infrastructure initiatives have embraced high-volume fly ash concrete, significantly reducing carbon emissions and enhancing structural longevity in various road and building constructions.[35] By utilizing fly ash, a by-product of coal combustion, in substantial quantities within concrete mixtures, the state has demonstrated a commitment to reducing environmental impact while maintaining stringent construction standards. The successful integration of fly ash concrete into California's infrastructure serves as a practical model for sustainable construction practices worldwide. Reference: California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery

Alkali-Activated Binders in European Construction

European construction projects have enthusiastically adopted alkali-activated binders derived from industrial by-products, showcasing reduced carbon footprints and enhanced structural performance in bridges and buildings. These binders, incorporating materials like slag or fly ash, exemplify a sustainable alternative to conventional cement, contributing significantly to eco-conscious construction practices across the continent.[36] The successful implementation of alkali-activated binders in various European construction projects emphasizes the potential of these alternatives in mitigating environmental impact while ensuring structural integrity.

Masdar City's Geopolymer Concrete

Developers meeting in front of Masdar City

The innovative urban development project of Masdar City in Abu Dhabi stands as a trailblazing example of employing geopolymer concrete in its infrastructure, prioritizing sustainability and durability. Geopolymer, derived from industrial by-products such as fly ash or slag, presents remarkable reductions in both carbon emissions and energy consumption compared to traditional cement[37]. This implementation reflects Masdar City's commitment to eco-friendly urban planning and sustainable construction practices. Studies analyzing the structural performance and environmental impact of geopolymers in this context have further highlighted its potential to revolutionize the construction industry.

Carbon Emissions Reduction by 40% with Sustainable Alternatives

Adopting sustainable cement alternatives has showcased a substantial reduction of up to 40% in carbon emissions compared to traditional cement production methods. This remarkable reduction emphasizes the significant environmental benefits achievable through the implementation of sustainable concrete solutions, presenting a promising pathway toward mitigating global greenhouse gas emissions.[38]

Energy Consumption Decreased by 20% in High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete

High-volume fly ash concrete provides a notable decrease of approximately 36%-38% in energy consumption compared to standard concrete mixtures. This reduction highlights the efficiency gains achievable by integrating sustainable alternatives into construction practices, contributing to broader energy conservation efforts within the construction sector. [39]

30% Longer Lifespan in Structures Utilizing Alkali-Activated Binders

Structures constructed using alkali-activated binders have demonstrated a prolonged lifespan of approximately 30% compared to traditional cement-based structures. This statistic underscores the durability and resilience offered by sustainable alternatives, signifying their potential for enhancing long-term structural integrity and reducing the need for frequent replacements or repairs.[40]

These real-life implementations and statistics support the viability, benefits, and potential of sustainable concrete alternatives. They underscore not only the immediate environmental advantages but also the long-term structural integrity and efficiency gains achievable through their widespread adoption in construction practices worldwide.

Future Directions and the Next Steps

Advancements in Material Science

As material science development progresses in a world of concern regarding global sustainability, researchers anticipate the invention of renewable alternatives through the exploration of novel compounds, nanotechnology applications, and advanced manufacturing techniques. This research aims to enhance the properties of eco-friendly materials, further reducing carbon footprints, and improving structural performance in construction.

Continued efforts will focus on optimizing combinations of alternative materials, such as supplementary cementitious materials, industrial by-products, and bio-based alternatives. This includes refining mix designs, understanding long-term durability, and conducting life-cycle assessments to ensure optimal performance in a variety of construction applications.

Scaling Up Production and Commercialization

Following the optimization of renewable alternatives, governments and global organizations must focus on scaling up production and commercialization of sustainable concrete alternatives. This includes streamlining manufacturing processes, addressing cost-effectiveness, and increasing availability to meet industry demands, encouraging global adoption in construction projects.

Anticipated Trends and Directions:

Carbon-Negative Materials and Circular Economy Practices

Anticipated trends foresee the emergence of carbon-negative materials that actively absorb and sequester carbon dioxide during their lifespan, contributing to net-negative emissions. Additionally, circular economy practices, focusing on recycling, reusing, and repurposing construction materials, are poised to gain prominence, further reducing waste and environmental impact. Integrating digitalization, including Building Information Modeling (BIM) and advanced data analytics, will revolutionize construction practices.[41] Smart construction techniques will optimize material usage, improve project efficiency, and facilitate the integration of sustainable alternatives into designs and planning processes.

Regulatory Support and Industry Standards

Anticipated advancements include increased regulatory support and the establishment of industry standards that incentivize the adoption of sustainable alternatives. Collaboration between policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers will drive initiatives supporting eco-friendly construction practices. International collaboration and knowledge sharing among researchers, engineers, and policymakers will be pivotal in advancing sustainable concrete alternatives. This exchange of expert knowledge and best practices will accelerate innovation and foster the development of a globally standardized methodology.

Conclusions

In light of civilization's reliance on cement, there are viable alternatives to reduce cement production and explore diverse materials. Modifying manufacturing techniques can substantially decrease carbon emissions. The tools and resources in cement production have evolved significantly since Joseph Aspdin's original Portland Cement. Embracing alternative materials like hemp and bamboo can alleviate resource stress and provide environmental benefits, including the carbon-negativity of certain materials. Scientific advancements enable more efficient recycling, reducing waste and carbon emissions. Successful implications of sustainable cement alternatives are numerous, demonstrating the feasibility of this goal of reaching sustainable output. As climate change becomes an increasingly urgent issue, the push for sustainable alternatives in every facet of human consumption is crucial. The array of sustainable alternatives in cement production holds promise as a powerful tool against atmospheric pollution, contributing to a healthier life for all on Earth.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Scrivener, Karen; John, Vanderley; Gartner, Ellis (2018). "Eco-efficient cements: Potential economically viable solutions for a low-CO2 cement-based materials industry". pp. 2–26.
  2. ↑ Young, Joseph (1955). "A Brief Outline of The History of Cement". pp. 5–9.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Nobis, Rainer. "History of Cement". World Cement Association.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Scrivener, Karen (2014). "The Indian Concrete Journal" (PDF). p. 11-21.
  5. ↑ Branquinho, Cristina; Gaio-Oliveira, Gisela; Augusto, Sofia; Pinho, Pedro; Máguas, Cristina; Correia, Otília (2007). "Biomonitoring spatial and temporal impact of atmospheric dust from a cement industry". p. 292-299.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Doğan, Cüneyt; Demir, Demir (21/07/2020). "Physical and Mechanical Properties of Hempcrete". The Open Waste Management Journal. 13 – via Bentham Open. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ↑ Saini, Ayushi; Yadav, Madhura (22 June 2022). "Opportunities & challenges of hempcrete as a building material for construction: An overview". Materials today: Proceedings. 65 – via Science direct.
  8. ↑ *Bevan, Rachel; Woolley, Tom (2008). Hemp Lime Construction. Bracknell: Building Research Establishment. ISBN 978-1-84806-033-3.
  9. ↑ Jami, Tarun (3 January 2017). "Hemp concrete: carbon-negative construction". Emerging Materials Research. 5 – via ICE Virtual Library.
  10. ↑ Millán Ramírez GP, Byliński H, Niedostatkiewicz M (2021) Deterioration and Protection of Concrete Elements Embedded in Contaminated Soil: A Review. Materials (Basel) 14 (12):. DOI:10.3390/ma14123253 PMID: 34204702
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Dorsey, Bryan (26 February 2021). "Refocusing on Sustainability: Promoting Straw Bale Building for Government-Assisted, Self-Help Housing Programs in Utah and Abroad". Sustainability. 13 – via MDPI.
  12. ↑ Bilo, Fabjola; Pandini, Stefano; Sartore, Luciana; Depero, Laura; Gargiulo, Giovanna; Bonassi, Andrea; Federici, Stefania; Bontempi, Elza (November 2018). "A sustainable bioplastic obtained from rice straw". Journal of Cleaner Production. 200: 357–368 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Downton, Paul (2013). "Straw bale". Australian Government: YourHome.
  14. ↑ Yinsheng, Li; Nanxing, Zhu; Jinxiang, Chen (January 2023). "Straw characteristics and mechanical straw building materials: a review". Journal of Materials Science. 58: 2361–2380 – via Springer Link.
  15. ↑ Government of Canada. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Straw bale moisture sensor study. Research and development highlights; technical series 96-206.
  16. ↑ Pierzchalski, Michael (September 2022). "Straw Bale Building as a Low-Tech Solution: A Case Study in Northern Poland". Sustainability. 14 – via MDPI.
  17. ↑ Wall, Katharine; Walker, Pete; Gross, Christopher; White, Craig; Mander, Tim (December 2012). "Development and testing of a prototype straw bale house". Construction Materials. 165: 377–384 – via ICE Virtual Library. line feed character in |title= at position 29 (help)
  18. ↑ Eisenberg, David; Hammer, Martin (February 2014). "Strawbale Construction and Its Evolution in Building Codes" (PDF). Building Safety Journal: 25–29 – via International Code Council. line feed character in |title= at position 28 (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Askarinejad, Sina; Youssefian, Sina; Rahbar, Nima (March 2020). "Toughening and Strengthening Mechanisms in Bamboo from Atoms to Fibers". Handbook of Materials Modeling: 1597–1625 – via Springer Link.
  20. ↑ Akinlabi, Esther; Anane-Fenin, Kwame; Akwada, Damenortey (July 2017). "Regeneration, Cultivation, and Sustenance of Bamboo". Bamboo – via Springer Link.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Shanyu, Han; Yuyuan, He; Hanzhou, Ye; Xueyong, Ren; Fuming, Chen; Kewei, Liu; Sheldon, Shi; Ge, Wang (September 2023). "Mechanical Behavior of Bamboo, and Its Biomimetic Composites and Structural Members: A Systematic Review". Journal of Bionic Engineering. 1 – via Springer Link.
  22. ↑ Madhusan, Sumeera; Buddika, Samith; Bandara, Sahan; Navaratnam, Satheeskumar; Abeysuriya, Nandana (July 2023). "Uses of Bamboo for Sustainable Construction—A Structural and Durability Perspective—A Review". Sustainability. 15 – via MDPI.
  23. ↑ Adier, Maria; Sevilla, Maria; Valerio, Daniel; Ongpeng, Jason (September 2023). "Bamboo as Sustainable Building Materials: A Systematic Review of Properties, Treatment Methods, and Standards". Buildings. 13 – via MDPI.
  24. ↑ Wahab, Razak; Sudin, Mahmud; Samsi, Hashim (2005). "Fungal Colonisation and Decay in Tropical Bamboo Species". Journal of Applied Sciences. 5: 897–902 – via Science Alert.
  25. ↑ Peng, Lin; Yuchen, Xu; Junfeng, Hou; Xiochun, Zhang; Lingfei, Ma; Wenbo, Che; Youming, Yu (June 2021). "Improving the Flame Retardancy of Bamboo Slices by Coating With Melamine–Phytate via Layer-by-Layer Assembly". Polymeric and Composite Materials. 8 – via Frontiers.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Amede, Ermias; Hailemariama, Ezra; Hailemariam, Leule; Nuramo, Denamo (October 2021). "A Review of Codes and Standards for Bamboo Structural Design". Advances in Materials Science and Engineering – via Hindawi.
  27. ↑ Chin, Siew (August 2021). "Practical Applications of Bamboo as a Building Material: Trends and Challenges". Biotechnical Advances in Bamboo – via 463-481.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 Parathi, Saranya; Nararajan, Praveen; Pallikkara, Shashikala (April 2021). "Ecofriendly geopolymer concrete: a comprehensive review". Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy. 23: 1701–1713 – via Springer Link.
  29. ↑ Thakar, Ishan; Motiani, Ronak; Jat, Divya (October 2022). "Geopolymer Concrete – A Study of an Alternative Material for OPC". Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Disaster Resilience and Sustainable Development: 189–202 – via Springer Link.
  30. ↑ Neupane, Kamal; Chalmers, Des; Kidd, Paul (June 2018). "High-Strength Geopolymer Concrete- Properties, Advantages and Challenges". Advances in Materials. 7 – via Science Publishing Group.
  31. ↑ Yin, Zhang; Huihong, Li; Yaser, Gamil; Bawar, Iftikhar; Haseeb, Murtaza (October 2021). "Towards modern sustainable construction materials: a bibliographic analysis of engineered geopolymer composites". Structural Materials. 10 – via Frontiers.
  32. ↑ Radina, Liga; Sprince, Andina; Pakrastins, Leonids; Gailitis, Rihards; Sakale, Gita (February 2023). "Potential Use of Construction Waste for the Production of Geopolymers: A Review". Material Proceedings. 13 – via MDPI.
  33. ↑ Wang, Bo; Fu, Qiuni (August 2021). "A Comprehensive Review on Recycled Aggregate and Recycled Aggregate Concrete". Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 171 – via Science Direct.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Shi, Caijun (January 2016). "Performance enhancement of recycled concrete aggregate – A review". Journal of Cleaner Production. 112 – via Science Direct.
  35. ↑ Miley, Nicholas (2019). "Embodied Carbon Impacts of California Concrete Mix Designs" (PDF). SEAOC CONVENTION PROCEEDINGS.
  36. ↑ Amer, Salma (June 16, 2018). "ALKALI-ACTIVATED CONCRETE" (PDF). Canadian Society for Civil Engineering Main Site.
  37. ↑ Mohamed, Elchalakani. "Sustainable concrete with high volume GGBFS to build Masdar City in the UAE". Science Direct.
  38. ↑ N/A (2022-11-09). "ROADMAP TO NET-ZERO CARBON CONCRETE BY 2050" (PDF). Cement Association of Canada. line feed character in |title= at position 27 (help)
  39. ↑ "Effect of fly ash on the service life, carbon footprint and embodied energy of high strength concrete in the marine environment".
  40. ↑ Haruna, Sani. "Long-Term Strength Development of Fly Ash-Based One-Part Alkali-Activated Binders". National Library of Medicine.
  41. ↑ N/A (N.D.). "The Circular Economy Approach in Carbon-Neutral Construction". Utilities One. Check date values in: |date= (help)
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