Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Is Outmigration Good for the Environment? A case study of Nepal

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Introduction

Outmigration can be defined as the flow of people, particularly active citizens in the workforce, out of an area.[1] These people are typically driven to migrate towards areas with higher development for better socioeconomic and educational opportunities.[2] In Nepal, many people have out-migrated from rural areas to into bigger cities, leaving behind agricultural practices for newly emerging higher paying positions. [3] The out-migrants within Nepal are typically young men, leaving behind women, children, and elders.[1] Outmigration of mainly this demographic creates a shortage of labor in rural areas, sequentially creating changes to the environment.[4] This page examines some of outmigrations largest aspects, its environmental impacts, the challenges faced and some solutions for mitigating impacts of outmigration.

Aspects of Outmigration

Example of a smallholder farm within Nepal.

Several factors are responsible for outmigration in Nepal. These factors are fundamental for understanding local and international migration patterns. The most significant aspects driving outmigration in Nepal are disparities in development, economics, social change, as well as education-related and gender-specific issues. This section provides further information on how these factors influence Nepal's outmigration.

Globalization and Development

To better understand how globalization and development impact migration trends in Nepal, we must study the key drivers contributing to increasing migration globally. Levels of development do not uniformly rise for all countries or within all regions of a country.[2] Due to the inequality in development across regions, we can see individuals migrating towards areas with higher development in pursuit of more opportunities.[2] By utilizing the Human Development Index (HDI) Nepal's development can be compared to other countries along with the development within the provinces of Nepal. Globally, Nepal has a HDI ranking of 0.602 in 2021 compared to the world average of 0.733 in 2021.[5] Internally, Nepal has disparities within its province's development, with the Karnali Province having a HDI of only 0.550 and the Western Province having a HDI of 0.659.[6] These gaps in development can play a role in the Nepali people immigrating, both internally and internationally, towards areas of higher development.[2]

In today's globalized world, information sharing and movement of capital over any distance can happen almost immediately.[2] Migrant workers can now easily communicate with their families and remit money back home, a convenience that historically was unavailable.[2] Advances in transportation have also resulted in faster and more extensive travel options, making movement between two locations significantly more accessible.[2] These improvements lead to increased population mobility, thus contributing to a rise in migration.[2]

Socioeconomics

Unemployment and poverty are significant reasons for outmigration.[7] Schwilch describes that, as farming makes up a small percentage of incomes, 78% of households in the Harpan river subwatershed near the city of Pokhara in the Kaski District of Nepal report that more than half of their income comes from off-farm.[7] 63% of these households use remittances – money that is made from family-members who have migrated and is sent back to the family – mainly for food.[7] This makes sense because land abandonment in cultivated areas, for reasons such as labour shortage (as people migrate), low production and natural disasters[7][8], means there is less profitability in farming. This is particularly true for mountainous regions compared to the plains. In the mountains, it is more difficult to hire workers as there is a greater labour shortage, and it is also more difficult to mechanize, making farms in these areas less productive and competitive.[9]

Education

A growing pull factor of outmigration from agricultural and rural areas of Nepal appears to be the pursuit of education. What Prem[10] defines as “farm-exit” has been attributed to the lowering “availability of working-age family labor pool, particularly the presence of working-age males and more importantly the presence of working-age children”. Across three ethnically Tibetan communities of Nepal's mountainous regions a study found that there has been outmigration of 73% of males and 69% of female youth.[11] Youth who are likely to assist with farming have left their villages, anywhere from a few day's walk to internationally[11] for educational opportunities. Parents send their children to boarding schools in hopes of “higher education, employment, or military service” who in turn feel little incentive to return home due to a lack of economic opportunities and language barriers.[11] Both in pursuit of and post education, agricultural areas and the overall environment of rural regions are affected by the loss of the younger generation.

Gender

A critical characteristic in influencing outmigration, land care and knowledge, and agriculture within Nepal is gender. As men outmigrate from their rural homes to bigger cities for more opportunities, women and children are left at home.[9] Since much of this rural area is farmland, women become the primary farmers.[12] Alternatively, when women migrate with the men, leaving the elderly in rural areas, agriculture decreases.[9] This change in gender roles has led to a shift in agriculture and land practices within Nepal. Women tend to take on more hands-on, horticulture, and self-sufficient crop work. They tend to avoid livestock, heavy machinery, and cash crops.[9] When women take up agriculture alongside their responsibilities as homemakers, there is a decrease in agricultural intensity due to less time spent on agriculture.[9] Many women have expressed hopefulness for the land, in contrast, men who have outmigrated tend to be more pessimistic.[9] Women also express a more positive outlook on the future development of mountain agriculture. [12] Overall, women’s increasing role in agriculture has had a significant impact on land practices, leading to environmental impacts.

Environmental Impacts

Nepal has experienced many environmental issues as a result of outmigration. While the land use change resulting from outmigration can appear to have positive impacts on the land, most of the effects are negative. This section focuses on how outmigration changes agricultural practices, which increases forest cover and land degradation.

Agriculture

A prominent area of concern at the intersection of people and the environment is agriculture. In 2011, the results of a national census indicated outmigration from rural areas was 85% of the 25% of households that had at least one family member absent.[12] Most migrants are working-age males and children who are most likely to work on farms.[10] Due to the absence of these essential workers, agricultural lands and practices have shifted greatly, creating varying effects on the local environment[12].

A continuous steep brown hill makes up the photograph. In the foreground are clusters of green and orange vegetation ranging in size. The mid-ground is marked with agricultural lines running horizontally across the slope, and the background is a forested area. In the lower right corner is the date 30/05/2012 in orange text.
Amriso plantation on the slopes of Nepal.

Bhawana[12] found that of the existing agricultural land, 33% of it has been abandoned, in particular areas that are the most unproductive and least accessible. This unproductivity continues in the form of invasive species that not only prevent ecosystem regeneration but also livestock grazing. The invasive species Ageratum houstonianum, known locally as nilo gandhe is poisonous and causes soil degradation.[12] However, there has also been successful ecological restoration in what was originally the least productive farmlands known as Kharbari, which has been converted naturally with the regeneration of native trees. Additionally, rainfed farmland, Bari, is converting to shrubland.[12] Organized action has taken place with positive agricultural results in mind, such as the WWF's program Hariyo Ban Program[13] which has supported communities in planting the native Amriso, also known as broom grass, which has rehabilitating land by keeping invasive species away and preventing soil degradation.

Land that is still being used for agriculture shows an increase in chemical fertilizer use in an attempt to make up for the shortage of labour, which as Nepal[14] says “may increase negative environmental effects, such as less soil organic matter and more emissions”. Both Bhawana and Nepal suggest agroforestry, in addition to alternative practices such as community-based farming, and financial and technical support for rural communities in Nepal struggling with the absence of key workers[12][14].

Land Degradation

Erosion of an abandoned farm in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal.
Erosion of an abandoned farm in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal.

Land abandonment as a result of outmigration leads to land degradation. A study of the Harpan watershed showed that 49% of the area experienced environmental degradation, 62% of this is forest and 24% is cultivated land.[8] The primary type of degradation is biological.[7][8] The most concerning agent causing biological degradation is invasive species banjara and nilo Gandhi. [7][8] Invasive species are hard to remove and present threats to other species, which becomes an increasing concern as outmigration leads to a decreased ability to remove these species.[7][8] Additionally, as mentioned previously, nilo gandhe is toxic to animals, resulting in dangers to livestock.[7][8] The introduction of banmara and nilo gandhe also removes nutrients of the soil, inhibiting growth of native species.[8]

Another type of degradation is chemical; that is, a decline in soil fertility and organic matter.[7][8] This is occurring both in upstream and downstream areas, but for different reasons. Upstream, land is being abandoned as people migrate to more populated areas, leading to less manure being produced as livestock moves with people[7][8] and fewer people remaining to distribute manure,[7] resulting in less fertile upstream land. Downstream from the abandoned areas, there is more intensive land use as people move to more urban and populated areas.[7][8] For example, crop yields in downstream fields have increased from two to three per year.[7] This has resulted in a greater amount of organic matter being removed from the soil, reducing its fertility.[8]

Reforestation

The outmigration of workers from Nepal impacts the reforestation of lands in three main ways.[15] The first is that migrant workers often leave for higher-earning employment opportunities.[16] With increased wages, these workers have a propensity to finance their entire household to move away from their land.[15] This migration of households leads to land abandonment, which results in the abandoned land having an increase in tree coverage.[15][16] The second factor is that migrant workers often send money to their households, which reduces household poverty levels.[15] This increase in support reduces deforestation rates because households with assistance from migrant workers are less likely to rely on agricultural land and wood products.[15] Decreasing the use of wood products, such as firewood and building materials, reduces pressure put on forests resulting in less deforestation.[15] The third factor is the labor shortage, which occurs when people migrate away from their households.[15] Most migrant workers are young men who would historically provide important labor for their families and other families who may hire them.[16][17] When workers leave, less labor is available. With less labor available for agriculture, there is a decrease in agricultural activity in both migrant households and the surrounding community.[16] This decrease in agricultural activity resulted in farmers in some areas reporting a rise of 63% in naturally regenerated forests on their land.[16]

Unfortunately, reforestation of these areas does not necessarily result in a positive environmental impact from outmigration.[16] These trends of reforestation may actually signal that the land is now becoming under managed or abandoned by its stewards.[16] Reforestation as a result of shifting land use us correlated with land degradation, forest fires and an increase in invasive species.[16]

Challenges

The result of outmigration and the environmental impacts it has had on the land within Nepal has led to many challenges arising. This section examines a few prominent challenges Nepal has faced in lea of outmigration's impacts.

Climate Change

The foreground is filled with grey water as a result of flooding. In the middle of it sits a short building with a red roof and yellow walls. Increasing in elevation behind the flat ground affected by the flooding is a terraced field full of short, green vegetation and multi-storey buildings along the sides in a variety of colours. The right side towards the background is full of dark green trees.
Flooding in Nepal causing damage to the local area.

The effects of climate change are a continuing impact for farmers in Nepal; 89% in the Namobuddha municipality believe that climate change has impacted them, with 92.9% of respondents citing droughts as the most prevalent example.[18] In the Rupandehi and Chitwan districts, farmers note a significant percentage of crop losses (up to 70%) due to climate related events like flood, drought, extreme rainfall, and cold spells, all of which have increased in frequency since 2003.[19] These effects are important to address as a large portion of outmigration occurs from rural areas.[20] The increased frequency of droughts and floods, and higher temperatures as a result of climate change are reducing crop yields.[20] Analyses done on multiple studies of yields under varying climate conditions suggest there will be a significant reduction over time.[20] In addition, increasing temperatures and unreliable water supply will impact farmers of livestock as these conditions will directly affect the health of animals and farmers' supply of feed for them.[20]

Climate change is making agriculture in rural communities less profitable, compelling farmers to seek alternative livelihoods.[21] Climate change not only impacts the economic gains from farming but also contributes to increased food insecurity in these regions.[21] The consequence of this results in an increase in seasonal migration of households and longer migration periods for those already engaged in migration.[21] As highlighted earlier, migration from rural areas creates negative environmental impacts which amplify the harm already caused by climate change.

Poverty & Youth Migration

A large portion of migrants come from rural areas, as indicated by the fact that approximately 40% of remittances are sent to these regions.[20] Migration from rural areas reduces the pool of younger members in the workforce, resulting in an aging population left behind to take on more work at home,[20] and this trend is also present in Nepal.[22] Poverty in these areas is exacerbated when migrants encounter issues in finding well-paying jobs in other areas and sending remittances home, as those left behind may need to take on additional work to compensate for the income gap they now experience.[20] For young people at home, there are high levels of under- or unemployment that inhibit families from diversifying their income streams and escaping poverty.[20] In the absence of remittance or local non-farm employment, families must consider other income activities in order to escape the cycle of poverty.[23] This often produces an intensification on crop or livestock production, which generates a higher demand on the environment.[3][23] Alternatively, it can result more pressure to migrate away from rural areas towards other economic opportunities.[21] Both activities result in negative environmental impacts showing the strong links between poverty, migration, and environmental impact.[23]

Feminization of Agriculture

A woman stands in a brown field, bending over with a tool. She wears a red scarf tied around her head, a brown coat, and a long grey skirt
A woman working in an agricultural field in Nepal.

Male outmigration of rural areas is a leading causing of what is called the “feminization” of agriculture (or an increase in the percentage of women workers) in low-income countries around the world.[20][24] In Nepal, outmigration is considered a driving factor for this process as the majority of those who migrate from rural areas are men.[7][20][24] The number of women working on farms in Nepal between 1980 and 2010 increased from 35% to 50%, with the likelihood that it has increased beyond that today.[20] As such, women are playing an increasingly important role in natural resource management.[20]

However, women farmers are facing new and growing challenges with outmigration.[24] In Nepal, farm work involves well-defined, traditional divisions of labour between men and women (for example, women sow, weed and reap while men plough, harrow and level soil).[19][24] With a reduction in available men in households, women need to seek out neighbouring men or hire male workers to take on these traditional tasks.[24] However, a shortage of male labourers with increasing demand means it is difficult for many women-only and elderly households to afford to pay them.[24] Many women are being forced to cross these traditional labour boundaries and increase their workloads with these additional tasks as they cannot afford to pay workers.[24] Those who can find men to work on their farms may have to take on extra work regardless in a labour exchange, in which the woman is expected to work on a man's farm if he assists her, though she needs to work more days than he in payment.[24]

As a result of these challenges they face, many women-headed households are adapting their farming strategies to cope.[24] One method is to plant earlier or later in the season, neither of which is ideal as they miss the optimal time for their crops, reducing yield.[24] These households are also keeping fewer farm animals, particularly cows, buffalo and oxen, as they do not have the time or money to care for and feed them.[24] Finally, these households will often under-utilize or abandon some of their land entirely, particularly that which is further away from a settlement or irrigation supply, no matter how productive it may be.[24] As such, agricultural production overall has decreased.[24]

Avenues for Mitigation

Solutions to mitigate outmigration and its resulting effects need to address the root causes of the issue. Potential strategies include the reduction of youth outmigration and changes to current agricultural practices.

Reducing Youth Outmigration

As a prominent trend in outmigration is youth leaving rural areas for better prospects elsewhere to support themselves and their families,[20] it is important to target the root of the issues for this demographic in order to reduce outmigration and its effects. It was found that, in providing youth in two areas of Nepal (the Chandrawati watershed and the Kerunga buffer zone community forest) with forums in which they can engage with each other (e.g. youth workshops), they will have constructive discussions and have a more favourable view on remaining in their villages.[22] In the context of forestry and forest resources, youth in the Chandrawati watershed gained a positive outlook on handmade paper production, and medicinal and aromatic plant collection.[22] In the Kerunga buffer zone, youth were particularly interested in participating in eco-tourism, such as acting as local guides.[22] From these results, it was concluded that such forums for dialogue are important for educating, involving and engaging youth in local enterprises, and that they are successful in potentially reducing migration, as up to 72% would opt to work in their home regions, or in Nepal, if these opportunities existed.[22] It is also important to address issues of productivity and employment in these industries (in this context, forestry) in order to prevent youth outmigration.[22]

Changing Agricultural Practices

As agriculture is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, adjusting agricultural practices is important in mitigating the effects of climate change.[20] Considering the impact of climate change on farmers in reducing crop yields,[20] it is also important to adapt farming strategies in the context of changing climates to support farmers and reduce poverty, which has been linked to outmigration.[7][20] In the Namobuddha municipality in Nepal, though 89% of farmers recognize the effects of climate change, 63.6% are unsure if their agricultural practices are sustainable.[18] This highlights the importance of informing and educating farmers on sustainable practices.[18]

The suggested, more sustainable methods are called environmental conservation agriculture (ECA)[18] and climate-smart agriculture (CSA)[25][26] technologies. ECA involves broadening the classification of environmentally-friendly and eco-farming to including methods that are based on standards suggested and imposed by varying bodies in order to expand the number of farmers that are assissted by agricultural programs, rather than having strict or narrow qualifications.[18] CSA aims to make agriculture more sustainable and system-oriented in terms of the environment and farmers' livelihoods through a variety of technologies and practices, based on three pillars: increasing production and income sustainably, increasing resilience to the effects of climate change, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions as much as possible.[19][25][26]

Studies demonstrate how the adoption of CSA strategies increase crop yields and income.[19][26] In the Punjab province of Pakistan, the adoption of even just two CSA practices improves farm yield and income, with adoptees who utilize the full range of CSAs in the study increasing their yield 32-44% in kg/ha and their income 45-48% in US$/ha than those who did not adopt these practices at all.[26] Another study of the Rupandehi and Chitwan districts of Nepal concluded the use of CSAs reduced the labour undertaken by female farmers and increased their access to agricultural resources and market opportunities.[19] These improvements are important to consider with the understanding of the increasing number of women working in agriculture due to male outmigration and the challenges they face in this industry[20][24], as described above.

Despite these noted benefits, there are a number of factors that influence whether farmers will adopt these practices. Some of these include age and experience in farming, implying resistance to new technologies in favour of traditional methods.[26] Household size is also negatively correlated with utilizing CSAs, likely as a result of income decreasing as household size increases, reducing access to CSA technologies.[26] Characteristics like education level[26] and access/attendance to CSA training[25] increase the likelihood of adopting CSAs. Land ownership also increases utilizing these strategies, indicating farmers are likely to want to manage their own property in these ways as opposed to land they rent.[25]

Conclusion

The foreground and mid-ground show lush green agricultural fields, arranged as steps, exemplifying terrace agriculture. The mid-background has a line of trees and short buildings, while the far-background shows mountains.
Terraced green fields of crops in Nepal.

Outmigration in Nepal is bad for the environment. it is driven by individuals migrating for better socioeconomic and educational opportunities due to uneven development rates within Nepal and globally.[2] The largest group migrating away from rural areas in Nepal are young men who play a crucial part in the labor force.[1] The reduction in the availability of labor leads to land degradation and abandonment.[7][16] While land abandonment can lead to reforestation, it does not signal a positive environmental impact of outmigration.[16] Instead, reduced labor and land abandonment are correlated to land degradation through an increase in invasive species, and reduction in soil fertility.[7][8] The adverse environmental effects of outmigration are amplified by climate change, creating deteriorating agriculture conditions.[21] There is also a negative cycle of poverty created if migrants cannot send remittances, and the families must compensate for the income gap created.[20] Additionally, having mainly young men migrate away from their farmland places the burden of agriculture onto the women, establishing changes in agriculture practices.[24] These issues generate more pressure to migrate from rural areas, leading to land abandonment and, ultimately negative environmental impacts.[21] While outmigration currently proves to be bad for the environment two strategies can implemented to mitigate its impact. The first is creating opportunities that keep youth in their communities and educating, involving, and engaging youth in dialogues about future engagement.[22] The second is focused on changing agricultural practices to more sustainable and reliable methods.[25][26]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Oldekop, Johan (September 2018). "An Upside to Globalization: International Outmigration Drives Reforestation in Nepal". Global Environmental Change. 52: 1–6 – via Elsevier.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Skeldon, Ronald (2014). Migration & Development: a global perspective. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 10–15. ISBN 978-0-582-23960-9.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Nepal, Apsara Karki; Nepal, Mani; Bluffstone, Randall (27 August 2022). "Labour Outmigration, Farmland Fallowing, Livelihood Diversification and Technology Adoption in Nepal". International Labour Review – via Wiley Online Library.
  4. ↑ Schwilch, G. (2017). "Impacts of Outmigration on Land Management in a Nepali Mountain Area". Identifying Emerging Issues in Disaster Risk Reduction, Migration, Climate Change and Sustainable Development Shaping Debates and Policies. Springer International Publishing. pp. 177–194. ISBN 978-3-319-33878-1.
  5. ↑ "Human Development Index (HDI) by Country 2023". World Population Review. December 8, 2023. Retrieved December 8, 2023.
  6. ↑ "Subnational HDI (v7.0)". Global Data Lab. December 8, 2023.
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 Schwilch, G. (2017). "Impacts of Outmigration on Land Management in a Nepali Mountain Area". Identifying Emerging Issues in Disaster Risk Reduction, Migration, Climate Change and Sustainable Development Shaping Debates and Policies. Springer International Publishing. pp. 177–194. ISBN 978-3-319-33878-1.
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 Jaquet, S.; Schwilch, G.; Hartung-Hofman, A.; Sudmeier-Rieux, K.; Shrestha, G.; Liniger, H.P.; Kohler, T. (2015). "Does outmigration lead to land degradation? Labour shortage and land management in a western Nepal watershed". Applied Geography. 62: 157–170.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Maharjan, A.; Kochhar, I.; Chitale, V.S.; Hussain, A.; Gioli, G. (2020). "Understanding rural outmigration and agricultural land use change in Gandaki Basin, Nepal". Applied Geography. 124.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Bhandari, Prem B. (October 2013). "Rural livelihood change? Household capital, community resources and livelihood transition". Journal of Rural Studies. 32: 126–136 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Childs, Geoff; Craig, Sienna; Beall, Cynthia M.; Basynat, Budda (May 2014). "Depopulating the Himalayan Highlands: Education and Outmigration From Ethnically Tibetan Communities of Nepal". Mountain Research and Development (Online). 34: 85–84 – via ProQuest.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 Bhawana, K C; Race, Digby (2020). "Outmigration and Land-Use Change: A Case Study from the Middle Hills of Nepal". Land. 9 – via ProQuest.
  13. ↑ "Rehabilitating land degraded by shifting cultivation". WWF Nepal. November 30, 2012.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Nepal, Apsara Karki; Nepal, Mani; Bluffstone, Randall (27 August 2022). "Labour Outmigration, Farmland Fallowing, Livelihood Diversification and Technology Adoption in Nepal". International Labour Review – via Wiley Online Library.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 Oldekop, Johan (September 2018). "An Upside to Globalization: International Outmigration Drives Reforestation in Nepal". Global Environmental Change. 52: 1–6 – via Elsevier.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 Bhawana, KC (18 December 2019). "Outmigration and Land-Use Change: A Case Study from the Middle Hills of Nepal". Land. 9: 1–12 – via ProQuest.
  17. ↑ Omelaniuk Ed, Irena (2012). Global Perspectives on Migration and Development. Dordecht Heidelberg New York London: Springer. p. 40. ISBN 978-94-007-4110-2.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Maharjan, Keshav Lall; Singh, Manjeshwori; Gonzalvo, Clarisse Mendoza. "Drivers of environmental conservation agriculture and women farmer empowerment in Namobuddha municipality, Nepal". Journal of Agriculture and Food Research. 13 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Khatri-Chhetri, Arun; Regmi, Punya Prasad; Chanana, Nitya; Aggarwal, Pramod K. "Potential of climate-smart agriculture in reducing women farmers' drudgery in high climatic risk areas". Climatic Change. 158: 29–42 – via Springer.
  20. ↑ 20.00 20.01 20.02 20.03 20.04 20.05 20.06 20.07 20.08 20.09 20.10 20.11 20.12 20.13 20.14 20.15 20.16 20.17 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2017). The future of food and agriculture: Trends and challenges (PDF). Rome.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Gautam, Yograj (Nov 2017). "Seasonal Migration and Livelihood Resilience in the Face of Climate Change in Nepal" (PDF). Mountain Research and Development. 37 – via JSTOR.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 Poudel, Amir (2021). "Migration, youth workshops and forestry: Case studies from Nepal". Trees, Forests and People. 3 – via Elsevier Science Direst.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Khatiwada, Shanta Paudel (14 April 2017). "Household Livelihood Strategies and Implication for Poverty Reduction in Rural Areas of Central Nepal". Sustainability. 9: 1–3 – via MDPI. line feed character in |title= at position 52 (help)
  24. ↑ 24.00 24.01 24.02 24.03 24.04 24.05 24.06 24.07 24.08 24.09 24.10 24.11 24.12 24.13 24.14 Bhawana, KC; Race, Digby (2020). "Women's approach to farming in the context of feminization of agriculture: A case study from the middle hills of Nepal". World Development Perspectives. 20 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Ferrer, Alice Joan G.; Thanh, Le Ha; Chuong, Pham Hong; Kiet, Nguyen Tuan; Trang, Vu Thu; Duc, Trinh Cong; Hopanda, Jinky C.; Carmelita, Benedict Mark; Bernardo, Elisen Bernard (2023). "Farming household adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies: evidence from North-Central Vietnam". Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science. 7: 641–663 – via Springer.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 Sardar, Asif; Kiani, Adiqa K.; Kuslu, Yasemin (2020). "Does adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices improve farmers' crop income? Assessing the determinants and its impacts in Punjab province, Pakistan". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 23: 10119–10140 – via Springer.


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