Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Climate Change Impacts on Amazonian Bird Populations and Our Options

From UBC Wiki

Introduction

The Anthropocene is characterized by profound environmental changes as a result of human actions.[1] This climate change is largely due to a human-caused increase of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere, which is causing an increase in average global temperature.[2] This change in temperature is a significant driver of ecosystem transformation[3] and greatly threatens biodiversity and the resilience of ecosystems.[4] One example exhibiting this is the decline of bird populations in the Amazon.[5][6] Although the exact cause of this decline is unknown, it is likely not one specific reason, but rather a combination of many factors that instigate this shift.

Background

The Amazon rainforest is one of the largest remaining tropical forests, and is considered a biodiversity hotspot.[7] It is home to 5 of the 17 megadiverse countries, which are the countries containing the greatest amount of biodiversity on Earth.[8] Out of the world's 9856 known bird species, 1500 of them reside in the Amazon.[9] Birds are considered crucial for maintaining ecosystem balance mainly due to their seed dispersal capabilities.[10] The Amazon basin is found to be a region with extremely high climate change vulnerability not only in regard to its forests, but for the birds that reside within them.[9] Many species in this region are endemic, making them extremely intolerant of change.[10]

A scarlet macaw overlooking the top canopy in the Amazon in Manaus, Brazil

Climate change and deforestation are individually threatening to ecosystems and biodiversity, but the combination of both can act as a positive feedback loop and further aggravate each other.[11] Deforestation is rampant in the Amazon [11], with 32% of global deforestation between 2000-2012 taking place in tropical forests, and half of the tropical forest in the Amazon being lost.[12] The Amazon is predicted to experience some of the most severe effects of climate change, and large amounts of further forest loss.[13] It is estimated the temperature in the Amazon will increase by 4 to 8 °C between 2071 and 2100[7], which is expected to have crippling effects on many species, due to their reliance on the relatively stable climatic environment present in the region until recently.[6]

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

Fires in the Amazon rainforest

In the wake of global climate change, the adverse impacts on the Amazon rainforest have become increasingly pronounced, with deforestation and wildfires emerging as two primary causative factors.[14] Critically, human land use drives deforestation, damaging ecosystems to allow for expansion of industries including soy farming, cattle ranching[15], and oil extraction.[16] However, more complex ecological interactions also contribute.

Firstly, severe drought conditions significantly impede the self-repair mechanisms of the forest following wildfires, and make wildfires more prone to occur.[17] Research also indicates that climate-induced land desiccation and elevated average temperatures diminish the internal water retention capacity of trees, thereby exerting substantial adverse effects on the water cycle.[17] Consequently, extensive areas of trees become vulnerable, rendering it more challenging to preemptively prevent and withstand wildfires.[17] Secondly, environmental changes resulting from climate change directly affect the overall vulnerability of the forest, posing formidable challenges to the flora and fauna inhabiting it.[18] The disruption of the ecological balance due to the impact on trees constrains the living space and resources available to wildlife.

Within this context, significant alterations in bird habitats, such as extensive loss and fragmentation, impart substantial ramifications on the natural survival status of avian species. A study posits that understory insectivores, including solitary species and terrestrial foragers, are particularly susceptible to the effects of fragmentation, rendering them more fragile compared to other species.[19] Conversely, some frugivorous birds demonstrate heightened adaptability, correlating with the feeding and survival habits of their populations. However, on the whole, when avian habitats undergo dispersal, there is a notable increase in mortality rates.[19] The habitat loss caused by climate change disrupts their customary behavioural patterns, leading to diminished adaptability and posing challenges to the continued survival of many bird species.[19] Moreover, in the majority of fragments, the pace of species change exceeds theoretical predictions by 2-6 times.[20] This implies that predicting species dynamics within forests affected by fragmentation is challenging, and the actual situation may be more severe than anticipated. In-depth research and the implementation of effective conservation measures are imperative to comprehend and address the impacts of habitat fragmentation on the entire avian population and its ecosystem.

In summary, the escalating adverse effects of global climate change on the Amazon rainforest manifest in increased habitat loss and fragmentation. Severe drought conditions heighten the likelihood of wildfires, while climate-induced land desiccation and increased tree vulnerability disrupt the water cycle, posing a direct threat to the stability of the forest's ecological environment and presenting substantial challenges to the avian species inhabiting it.

Changes in Temperatures and Weather Patterns

Tropical wetland environment

The actual extent of long-term changes in tropical bird populations is not well studied, as much of the focus has been on migrating species.[6] This is largely due to the idea that tropical environments are relatively stable, so populations of nonmigratory tropical species would be stable as well.[6] This may have once been the case, but with climate change affecting temperature and weather patterns, it is not anymore. Large scale climatic cycles such as El Niño can affect bird populations over vast regions[21], and climate change can further amplify El Niño effects.[22] Changes in rainfall patterns also affect resource abundance, and therefore survival of many bird species, since a large number of bird species depend on plant material such as nuts and seeds for sustenance.[6]

It is projected that rainforest canopy in the central Amazon could decrease by 70% by the end of the 21st century, with much of it being replaced by mixed shrub-land and grasses.[13] These changes are associated with a decrease in average annual precipitation, and an overall modification in seasonal cycles.[13][23] The frequency and intensity of droughts and heatwaves in the Amazon has increased, and will continue to rise.[24]

Furthermore, freshwater wetlands in tropical regions are some of the most threatened ecosystems in the world, and experience higher rates of species loss than terrestrial ecosystems.[25] Over 150 Amazonian bird species are endemic to or extremely dependent on seasonally flooded habitats.[26] Vast numbers of migratory waterbirds that depend on these freshwater ecosystems are declining due to temperature and climate change.[27]

In one region of Brazilian Amazonia, climate data collected since 1966 reveals that mean temperatures have increased in both the wet and dry seasons; furthermore, precipitation increased in the wet season and decreased in the dry season.[3] This climate change is suspected to have caused an observed lower mean mass in non-migratory bird populations, along with longer wingspans.[3] These changes may have occurred for more efficient flight and less heat production under increasingly severe temperature-related stressors.[3] Additionally, shifts in seasonal temperatures have been associated with changes in the timing of bird migration, which may have ecological implications or negatively impact individual survival.[28]

Disease

The rising climate temperature caused by global warming directly affects the survival odds of Amazon bird populations when dealing with diseases. Higher temperatures can cause stress in birds, making them more susceptible to diseases.[29] Diseases, caused by bacteria or other pathogens, are generally more prolific under higher temperatures -- an increase by just a few degrees allows diseases to become much more volatile and deadly.[30] For instance, the West Nile Virus is known to thrive in warmer climates and has already devastated bird populations.[31]

In addition to the diseases themselves, warmer temperatures create favourable conditions for disease spreaders like mosquitoes and ticks to survive and breed, allow for disease-carrying fungi to thrive, cause flowing water to be cut off and become a breeding ground for pathogens, and allow disease susceptible algae to multiply, all of which increase the transmission of diseases.[32] In a 2010 study, it was discovered that disease infestation in birds, caused by parasitic animals like ticks, has increased more than 35% from the early 2000s.[33]  

Disease not only affects birds but the well-being of the entire correlating ecosystem they rely on. Many of the bird species in the Amazon rely on specific fruits, seeds, or insects for their diet.[34] These prey species, which could already be at risk from climate change and deforestation, now face the additional survival pressure caused by pathogens.[35] Diseases affecting plants, such as those caused by fungi or pests, can reduce the availability and quality of food for birds, making them more susceptible to illness.[35]

Diversity-13-00272-g001-550.webp

A recent 2021 study finds the presence of Chlamydia psittaci and various viruses in wild Amazon parrot nestlings to be considerable.[36] From a total sample of around 300 nests, Chlamydia DNA was found in 4.7% of A. aestiva and 2.5% of A. brasiliensis from the wild.[36] While these numbers show that the populations are currently healthy, it suggests that the additional spread of disease could have great consequences.[36]



Biodiversity Loss

Global tropical biodiversity is currently confronted with multifaceted threats, primarily stemming from adverse climate change, harmful land use practices, and the loss and degradation of habitats.[10] These factors notably impact the avian biodiversity of the Amazon rainforest, particularly within the populations inhabiting pristine forest environments.

Secondary forest landscapes play a pivotal role in preserving avian biodiversity, and safeguarding numerous species; however, the composition of these communities differs markedly from that of the original forests.[10] While avian populations within primary forests exhibit a higher resilience to large-scale disasters such as fires and droughts, effective protection remains challenging for the most sensitive species.[10] The research underscores that natural disasters pose a more significant threat to avian species diversity than anthropogenic logging.[10] Avian populations within burned forests experience substantial reductions, a trend less pronounced in selectively logged areas.[10]

The phenomenon of crowding is also evident, where birds, facing habitat destruction, seek temporary refuge in alternative locations.[18] Data analysis indicates that, following habitat fragmentation, the remaining populations within small fragments undergo an initial increase.[18] However, this surge is transitory, lasting approximately a year, after which a sharp decline ensues, ultimately plummeting below pre-fragmentation levels.[18] This suggests that, within a short timeframe, entire avian populations undergo considerable, specialized degradation[18], rendering it challenging for population numbers and diversity to revert to their original levels.

The reduction in avian biodiversity not only exerts adverse effects on bird populations and individuals but also has the potential to result in the overall functional impairment of the entire ecosystem. Research indicates that the decline of herbivorous avian species may significantly impact seed dispersal patterns, thereby negatively affecting the structural dynamics of forests.[37] Simultaneously, the diminution of insectivorous bird populations may lead to an increase in herbivorous insect numbers within the forest, consequently inducing heightened leaf damage and adversely impacting the optimal functioning of photosynthesis.[37] Seed dispersal and photosynthesis play pivotal roles in sustaining the functional aspects of forest ecosystems.[17] It is evident that the reduction in avian diversity contributes substantially to the observable losses in forest ecosystem functionality.

In conclusion, primary forests play a significant and indispensable role in preserving avian biodiversity. Faced with natural disasters, vulnerable avian populations struggle to maintain normal survival levels.[10] While some populations may experience short-term survival in fragmented habitats, the presence of crowding effects hinders the maintenance of favorable long-term survival conditions.[18] The loss of avian species also results in the impaired functioning of forest ecosystems.[37] In this context, urgent measures for the effective protection and management of pristine forests are imperative to ensure the sustained reproduction and preservation of avian populations' diversity.

Pollution

Beyond the climate change induced by greenhouse gas emissions, humans pollute ecosystems in many other ways, influencing local or regional climates.

Mercury Pollution

Mercury bioaccumulates, working itself up the food chain

Mercury is ubiquitous in the environment, yet can be lethal when bio-accumulated by organisms.[38] It is known to accumulate significantly in fish-eating and oceanic birds, and recent studies suggest that terrestrial songbirds may be similarly affected.[38] In the Western Amazon, mercury is being introduced to the environment at unusually high concentrations by human projects, including agricultural, hydroelectric, and gold mining initiatives.[39] As a result, birds from the Western Amazon were reported to have greater exposure to methylmercury than most other South American seabirds examined[39]. This may have serious consequences for Amazonian bird populations, as mercury exposure is associated with weakened immune systems, reduced reproductive fitness and output, and decreased energy[38]. It is suspected that populations may have already declined due to these effects[38]. As anthropogenic impacts continue to increase, environmental mercury concentrations are expected to follow[38], leaving wildlife even more vulnerable.

oil spill

Oil Pollution

Many regions of the Amazon are rich in oil and gas deposits[16], leading to environmentally destructive extraction strategies. For example, oil has been harvested from the North Peruvian Amazon for more than forty years, generating an oil pollution signature in surrounding soil and sediment.[16]These excess hydrocarbons pose risks to local wildlife, including birds, as contaminated material may eventually be ingested.[16] The deaths of birds from several distinct species due to oil pollution has also been reported.[40] Furthermore, the oil extraction process is linked with increased concentrations of lead, other heavy metals, dissolved sodium, and dissolved chloride in the Amazon River and its tributaries.[16] The presence of these pollutants will reverberate through trophic levels, negatively impacting the entire ecosystem.[16]

Noise Pollution

Small-scale gold mining has been identified as a source of significant noise, which greatly impacts local birds and frogs.[41] Excessive noise increases physiological stress, interferes with communication, and affects animal abundance, interactions, and activity.[41] In some cases, animals may resort to extreme solutions such as abandoning an area entirely or changing their calls.[41]

Potential Solutions and Actions Being Taken

One of the most significant and effective actions to take is to limit global warming to 2 ℃. Assessments show that warming up to 3 ℃ could lead to Amazon forest losses of around 40%, and an increase in wildfires by 60%.[24] The Amazon rainforest could reach its tipping point through two ways: a warming of 4 ℃ or a deforestation of 40%.[42] Therefore, implementing effective policies to ensure neither condition is reached is imperative.

Current Action

Northeastern Brazilian Indigenous man with Macaw feather accessories

Protected Areas and Indigenous Territory

Protected areas are potentially the most widespread conservation strategy, and are a cornerstone for preserving global biodiversity. Protected areas and connecting corridors are currently established on 15% of global terrestrial surface.[43] There has been a decrease in deforestation in the Amazon since 2005, in part due to the expansion of protected areas, with protected areas and indigenous territory encompassing 52% of the entire Brazilian Amazon region.[42][44] Since 2000, federal and state conservation areas have increased five-fold.[45] Supporting the rights of Indigenous people to act as stewards for their native land is not only ethical, but also productive in terms of conservation. It is shown that the protection and implementation of indigenous protected land is effective at mitigating deforestation, forest fires, and in turn, climate change throughout Brazil, Colombia, and Bolivia.[44][46] Indigenous Protected Areas are critical to conserve ecosystems, biodiversity and natural resources, where formal conservation and high amounts of funding may be minimal to non-existent. The management of these protected areas has gotten better over time, but few of them are truly effective in managing. An example of the effectiveness of Indigenous stewardship and protected areas is the fact that from 2000-2012, deforestation rates inside Indigenous stewarded areas or Indigenous protected areas were seven times lower than those outside, and three times lower in the Colombian Amazon [46]. With this, it is evident that combining protected areas with Indigenous Protected Areas can serve as a useful tool to combat the deforestation and therefore population decline of the Amazon and its species.

Satellite Monitoring and Law Enforcement

The Brazilian Legal Amazon contains almost 30% of global rainforest, leading to strong and increasingly successful government investments focused on preventing and controlling deforestation.[12] The National Institute for Space Research (INPE) has developed five systems to aid in forest monitoring: 1) the Amazon Deforesting Monitoring Project (PRODES), 2) the Selective Logging Detection Project (DETEX), 3) the Brazilian Amazon Forest Degradation Project (DETEX), 4) real-time deforestation detection system (DETER), and 5) the land use and land cover mapping of Amazon Deforested Areas (TerraClass).[12] DETER, for example, provides ultra-detailed and up-close imagery and deforestation mapping of areas over 25ha by passing over the same areas daily, giving real time updates on deforestation taking place, allowing the government and law enforcement to effectively respond.[12] In 2004, the federal government in Brazil also created the Federal Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Amazon (PPCDAM). PPCDAM participates in environmental monitoring and control, promotion of sustainable activities and practices from the civil level, private sector to federal agencies, as well as land tenure regularization.[12] Because most of the Amazon is extremely remote with no infrastructure to travel quickly through, monitoring of deforestation or harmful activities within the region was nearly impossible before satellite monitoring technology. It is a useful and promising strategy to combat further deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon.

Farms and developed land covering what once was the Amazon rainforest

Potential Socio-Economic Action: Limiting Trade

Environmental destruction and deforestation in the Amazon is largely a response to the global economy and its continually growing demand for animal and vegetable protein sources.[42] Because countries are free to decide what they import and export, a potential solution could be to limit import of goods that aid or promote in Amazonian rainforest destruction. For example, countries could put restrictions on commodities such as palm oil, Brazilian beef, soy, and tropical timber, which all directly contribute to deforestation.[42] The effectiveness of this is demonstrated through the fact that there was a 70% slowdown in deforestation between the years of 2004 and 2007, during which the US versus Brazilian dollar exchange rate fell by over half, making soy and beef exportation less profitable.[47]

Potential Social Action: Education and Intrinsic Value

Educating people on the intrinsic value of the Amazon is also key to maintaining and preserving Amazons ecosystems.[48] This aspect is frequently downplayed or ignored in policy and science discussions, with most discussion being about the utilitarian role the Amazon plays in climate regulation. Although climate regulation is extremely important for carbon sequestration and mitigating the effects of climate change, it is largely biodiversity that has justified the formation of the protected areas within the region.[48] Mitigating climate change will require billions of dollars, and if motivation and support for protection of the Amazon has not been gathered using the current utilitarian arguments, an intrinsic approach could aid in this endeavour. Many successful and widespread conservation efforts are due to the pushing of flagship species, in which people place high intrinsic value, affection and care towards a certain species, which then funds conservation and protection measures.[48] Examples of flagship species are pandas, elephants and tigers.[48] Although isolated to individual species, flagship species and the conservation efforts surrounding them exemplify the power of intrinsic value and its vast potential to spark widespread conservation efforts if the public is educated on the environment and biodiversity within it.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the series of interconnected consequences caused by climate change is already having an alarming impact on the bird populations of the Amazon and the situation will likely continue to worsen. The expansive and continuous habitat loss and fragmentation, mainly caused by deforestation and wildfires, have left the Amazon ecosystem distorted, vulnerable, and under pressure.[14] Overall, this causes bird species to have difficulties adapting and surviving in their changing environment.[11] The warming of temperatures and changes in weather patterns, coupled with the increasing threat of diseases, have further complicated the challenges faced by bird populations, considerably negatively impacting well-being and survival rates.[33] Birds are an irreplaceable piece of the Amazon ecosystem. Deterioration of their populations will affect not only the bird species themselves but also the entire Amazon rainforest, leading to possible outcomes such as loss of biodiversity, irreversible changes to waterways, and many other undesirable outcomes.

Research findings suggest that immediate and comprehensive actions are needed to alter the trend that is climate change. A few Celsius of change have catastrophic implications for wildlife everywhere including the Amazon bird populations [10]. Furthermore, conservation and preservation efforts need to be implemented to ensure the well-being and survivability of the Amazon bird population both now and in the future. Protection of bio-diversity-rich areas such as the Amazon rainforest needs more strict monitoring and protection efforts.

Ultimately, the Amazon bird population has some of the most unique and interesting bird species. Their survival is intertwined with the local ecosystem. detrimental affects on bird population will have similar outcomes for their surroundings. The current situation of the Amazon bird population reflects the necessary collective actions to secure the future of the Amazon rainforest.

References

  1. ↑ Lewis, Simon L.; Maslin, Mark A. (11 March 2015). "Defining the Anthropocene". Nature. 519: 171–180.
  2. ↑ Solomon, Susan (February 10, 2009). "Irreversible climate change due to carbon emissions". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106(6).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Jirinec, V; Burner, C; Amaral, R; Bierregaard, O; Fernández-Arellano, G; Hernández-Palma, A; Johnson, I; Lovejoy, E; Powell, L (2021). "Morphological consequences of climate change for resident birds in intact Amazonian Rainforest". Science Advances. 7.
  4. ↑ Tylianakis, Jason (November 5 2008). "Global change and species interactions in terrestrial ecosystems". Ecology Letters. 11. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ↑ Rubiano, Maríana (June 2, 2021). "Birds Are Declining in a Supposedly 'Untouched' Region of Amazon Rainforest". Audubon.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Blake, John; Loiselle, Bette (August 11, 2015). "Enigmatic declines in bird numbers in lowland forest of eastern Ecuador may be a consequence of climate change". PeerJ. 3 – via PeerJ.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Silva, Isabela; Calvi, Geângelo; Baskin, Carol; Santos, Gisele; Niwton, Filho; Ferraz, Isolde (August 1, 2021). "Response of central Amazon rainforest soil seed banks to climate change - Simulation of global warming". Forest Ecology and Management. 493 – via Elsevier.
  8. ↑ Zhang, Lu; Zhang, Li; Chapman, Colin; Peres, Carlos; Ming Lee, Tien; Fan, Peng-Fei (February 17, 2023). "Growing disparity in global conservation research capacity and its impact on biodiversity conservation". Science Direct. 6: 147–157.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Foden, Wendy; Butchart, Stewart; Stuart, Simon; Vié, Jean-Christophe; Akçakaya, resit; Angulo, Ariande; DeVantier, Lyndon; Gutsche, Alexander; Turak, Emre (June 12, 2013). "Identifying the World's Most Climate Change Vulnerable Species: A Systematic Trait-Based Assessment of all Birds, Amphibians and Corals". PloS One. 8 – via PloS One.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 de Moraes, Kauê Felippe; Santos, Marcos; Gonçalves, Gabriela; de Oliveira, Geovana; Gomes, Leticia; Moreira Lima, Marcela (17 July 2020). "Climate change and bird extinctions in the Amazon".
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Tabor, Karyn (September 2018). "Tropical Protected Areas Under Increasing Threats from Climate Change and Deforestation". Land (Basel). 7(3) – via ProQuest.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Diniz, Ceasar Guerriro; Souza, Arleson Antonio de Almeida; Santos, Diogo Correa; Dias, Mirian Correa; Luz, Nelton Cavalcante; Moraes, Douglas Rafael Vidal; Maia, Janaina Sant Ana; Gomes, Alessandra Rodrigues; Narvaes, Igor da Silva (January 2015). "DETER-B: The New Amazon Near Real-Time Deforestation Detection System". IEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing. 8: 3619–3628.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Cook, Kerry; Edward, Vizy (February 1, 2008). "Effects of Twenty-First Century Climate Change on the Amazon Rain Forest". Climate. 21: 542–560.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Laurance, William; Vasconcelos, Heraldo; Lovejoy, Thomas (24 April 2009). "Forest loss and fragmentation in the Amazon: implications for wildlife conservation".
  15. ↑ Barona, Elizabeth; Ramankutty, Navin; Hyman, Glenn; Coomes, Oliver T. (16 April 2010). "The role of pasture and soybean in deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon". Environmental Research Letters. 5 (2): 024002. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/5/2/024002 – via IOP Science.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Rosell-Melé, Antoni; Moraleda-Cibrián, Núria; Cartró-Sabaté, Mar; Colomer-Ventura, Ferran; Mayor, Pedro; Orta-Martínez, Martí (1 January 2018). "Oil pollution in soils and sediments from the Northern Peruvian Amazon". Science of The Total Environment. 610-611: 1010–1019 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Nogueira, Denis; Marimon, Beatriz; Marimon-Junior, Ben; Oliveira, Edmar; Morandi, Paulo; Reis, Simone; Elias, Fernando; Neves, Eder; Feldpausch, Ted. "Impacts of Fire on Forest Biomass Dynamics at the Southern Amazon Edge".
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 Stouffer, Philip (08 April 2020). "Birds in fragmented Amazonian rainforest: Lessons from 40 years at the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project". The Condor. 122. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Laurance, William; Camargo, José; Camargo, José; Laurance, Susan; Pimm, Stuart; Bruna, Emilio; Stouffer, Philip; Williamson, G.; Benítez-Malvido, Julieta (January 2011). "The fate of Amazonian forest fragments: A 32-year investigation".
  20. ↑ Gilbert, Benjamin; Laurance, William; Leigh Jr, Egbert; Nascimento, Henrique (September 2006). "Can Neutral Theory Predict the Responses of Amazonian Tree Communities to Forest Fragmentation?".
  21. ↑ Ballard, Grant; Geupel, Geoffrey; Nur, Nadav; Gardali, Thomas (November 1 2003). "Long-Term Declines and Decadal Patterns in Population Trends of Songbirds in Western North America, 1979–1999". The Condor. 105 – via Oxford Academic. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ↑ McPhaden, Michaael (July 27, 2023). "Has climate change already affected ENSO?". NOAA. Retrieved December 15, 2023.
  23. ↑ Kerry, Cook; Edward, Vizy (February 1, 2008). "Effects of Twenty-First-Century Climate Change on the Amazon Rain Forest". Journal of Climate. 21(3) – via AMS.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Jia, G; Shevliakova, p; Artaxo, P; De Noblet-Ducoudré, N; Houghston, R; House, J; Kitajima, K; Lennard, C; Popp, A (2019). "Land–climate interactions. In: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems" (PDF). IPCC. 5: 131–247. line feed character in |title= at position 192 (help)
  25. ↑ Castello, Leandro; Macedo, Marcia (December 23, 2015). "Large-scale degradation of Amazonian freshwater ecosystems". Global Change Biology. 22.
  26. ↑ Sawakuchi, A; Schultz, E; Pupim, F; Bertassoli, D; Souza, D; Cunha, D; Mazoca, C; Ferreira, M; Grohmann, C (August 23, 2022). "Rainfall and sea level drove the expansion of seasonally flooded habitats and associated bird populations across Amazonia". Nature Communications. 13.
  27. ↑ Bairlein, Franz (November 4, 2016). "Migratory birds under threat". Science. 354.
  28. ↑ Jenni, Lukas; Kéry, Marc (30 May 2003). "Timing of autumn bird migration under climate change: advances in long-distance migrants, delays in short-distance migrants". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 270: 1467–1471. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2394.
  29. ↑ Altizer, S., Ostfeld, R. S., Johnson, P. T. J., & Kutz, S. (2013, August 2). Climate change and infectious diseases: From evidence to a predictive framework. Science (New York, N.Y.). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23908230/
  30. ↑ Jordan , R. (2019, March 15). How does climate change affect disease?. Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability. https://sustainability.stanford.edu/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-disease#:~:text=As%20the%20globe%20warms%2C%20mosquitoes,chikungunya%20and%20West%20Nile%20virus.
  31. ↑ LaDeau , S. L., Marra, P. P., & Kilpatrick, A. M. (2007, May 16). West Nile virus emergence and large-scale declines of North American bird populations. Nature. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17507930/
  32. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, August 2). Climate change and infectious diseases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/what-we-do/climate-change-and-infectious-diseases/index.html
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Ogrzewalska, M., Uezu, A., & Labruna, M. B. (2010). Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting wild birds in the eastern Amazon, Northern Brazil, with notes on rickettsial infection in ticks. Parasitology Research, 106(4), 809–816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-010-1733-1
  34. ↑ Antunes, A. C., Montanarin, A., Gräbin, D. M., dos Santos Monteiro, E. C., de Pinho, F. F., Alvarenga, G. C., Ahumada, J., Wallace, R. B., Ramalho, E. E., Barnett, A. P., Bager, A., Lopes, A. M., Keuroghlian, A., Giroux, A., Herrera, A. M., de Almeida Correa, A. P., Meiga, A. Y., de Almeida Jácomo, A. T., de Barros Barban, A., … Ribeiro, M. C. (2022). Amazonia CAMTRAP: A data set of mammal, bird, and reptile species recorded with camera traps in the Amazon forest. Ecology, 103(9). https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.3738
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 ELLWANGER, J. H., KULMANN-LEAL, B., KAMINSKI, V. L., VALVERDE-VILLEGAS, J. M., VEIGA, A. B., SPILKI, F. R., FEARNSIDE, P. M., CAESAR, L., GIATTI, L. L., WALLAU, G. L., ALMEIDA, S. E. M., BORBA, M. R., HORA, V. P., & CHIES, J. A. (2020). Beyond diversity loss and climate change: Impacts of amazon deforestation on infectious diseases and public health. Anais Da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 92(1). https://doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765202020191375
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Vaz, F. F., Sipinski, E. A. B., Seixas, G. H. F., Prestes, N. P., Martinez, J., & Raso, T. F. (2021, June 16). Molecular survey of pathogens in wild amazon parrot nestlings: Implications for conservation. MDPI. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/13/6/272
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Morante-Filho, José; Faria, Deborah; Mariano-Neto, Eduardo; Rhodes, Jonathan (17 June 2015). "Birds in Anthropogenic Landscapes: The Responses of Ecological Groups to Forest Loss in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest".
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 Whitney, Margaret C.; Cristol, Daniel A. (15 July 2017). "Impacts of Sublethal Mercury Exposure on Birds: A Detailed Review". Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 244: 1130163 – via Springer.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Dias dos Santos, Angela N.; Recktenvald, Maria Cristina N.do N.; de Carvalho, Dario P.; Puerta, Emília L. Bortoleto; de Sousa-Filho, Izidro F.; Dórea, José G.; Bastos, Wanderley R. (October 2021). "Mercury in birds (aquatic and scavenger) from the Western Amazon". Environmental Research. 201: 111574 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  40. ↑ Bautista, Hugo; Rahman, K.M. (February 28, 2016). "Effects of crude oil pollution in the tropical rainforest biodiversity of Ecuadorian Amazon Region". Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Science. 8: 249–254.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Alvarez-Berríos, Nora; Campos-Cerqueira, Marconi; Hernández-Serna, Andrés; Delgado, C.J. Amanda; Román-Dañobeytia, Francisco; Aide, T. Mitchell (June 1 2016). "Impacts of Small-Scale Gold Mining on Birds and Anurans Near the Tambopata Natural Reserve, Peru, Assessed Using Passive Acoustic Monitoring". Tropical Conservation Science. 9 (2): 832–851 – via Sage Journals. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 Nobre, Carlos; Sampaio, Gilvan; Borma, Laura; Cardoso, Manoel (August 11, 2016). "Land-use and climate change risks in the Amazon and the need of a novel sustainable development paradigm". PNAS. 113.
  43. ↑ Rodrigues, Ana; Andelman, Sandy; Bakarr, Mohamed; Boltani, Luigi; Brooks, Thomas; Cowling, Richard; Lincoln, Fishpool; da Fonseca, Gustavo; Kevin, Gaston (April 8, 2004). "Effectiveness of the global protected area network in representing species diversity". Nature. 428: 640–643.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Bowman, Kerry; Dale, Samuel; Dhanani, Sumana; Nehru, Jevithen; Rabishaw, Benjamin (June 11, 2021). "Environmental degradation of indigenous protected areas of the Amazon as a slow onset event". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 50: 260–271 – via Elsevier.
  45. ↑ Walker, Robert; Moore, Nathan; Arima, Eugino; Perz, Stephen; Simmons, Cynthia; Caldas, Marcellus; Vergara, Dante; Bohrer, Claudio (June 30, 2009). "Protecting the Amazon with protected areas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PMAS). 106: 10582–10586.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Stevens, Caleb; Winterbottom, Robert; Springer, Jenny; Reytar, Katie (July 2014). "Securing rights, combating climate change". World Resources Institute.
  47. ↑ Assunção, Juliano; Gandour, Clarissa; Rocha, Rudi (February 15, 2015). "Deforestation slowdown in the Brazilian Amazon: prices or policies?". Environment and Development Economics. 20: 697–722.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 Milner-Gulland, Eleanor; Durant, Sarah; Woodroffe, Rosie; Young, Richard (January 1, 2017). "Mammals, Conservation Efforts for". Reference module in life sciences. 4 – via Elsevier Inc.


Seekiefer (Pinus halepensis) 9months-fromtop.jpg
 This conservation resource was created by Course:CONS200. It is shared under a CC-BY 4.0 International License.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Climate_Change_Impacts_on_Amazonian_Bird_Populations_and_Our_Options&oldid=815124"