Course:CONS200/2021/Causes and Consequences of Disappearing Kelp Forests

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Introduction

Pictured here is a kelp forest located beneath the Goleta Beach Pier in Santa Barbara, California.

Kelp forests are underwater ecosystems made up of large brown algae that can grow up to 45 meters [1]. They are found in cold coastal water much like the British Columbia coast [1]. These communities provide services for keystone species like a shelter for seat otters and nurseries for fish species [1], while also mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration [2]. In terms of climate change and challenges in flood management, focusing on strengthening kelp forests would be beneficial in tackling those issues [2]. Unfortunately, kelps forests are disappearing due to warmer water temperature [1], sea star wasting disease [3], and overfishing/over-harvesting [4]. The effects of kelp forest disappearance include ecosystem collapse, reduced natural breakwater, and loss of binding agents for food. To prevent further deterioration, possible regulation policies include marine protected areas [1]. This requires action from Canada’s Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Ecology of Kelp Forests

The Role of Kelp Forests for Our Underwater Ecosystems

Kelp plays an important role in the BC marine ecosystems. They provide biodiversity support through underwater habitats[1]. These habitats provide shelter from predators to many species, including but not limited to invertebrates, fishes, sea lions, and sea otters[1]. Predators such as sharks hunt in the long corridors between rows of kelp, promoting the natural marine food web. Along with shelter, many fish species use kelp forests as nurseries because of their ability to reduce the risk of the eggs floating away by decreasing the water movement within the kelp blades[1].

Giant kelp acts as canopy over ocean floor, providing food and shelter for species below it. (photo by NOAA)

The Benefits of Kelp Forests in Climate Change

Not only do kelp forests promote biodiversity, they benefit climate change through carbon capturing and sequestration. Increasing and managing kelp forests are good solutions to the growing global climate change problem. Kelp is a form of macro-algae and has the ability to photosynthesize, transforming atmospheric carbon into biomass. It is estimated that about 200 million tonnes of carbon dioxide is sequestered in kelp every year due to its fast growing speed[2]. Kelp can grow about 2 feet per day, capturing the carbon at an extremely fast rate. Once the carbon is sequestered, it is kept within theKelp Forest (12801115735).jpg kelp biomass which sinks to the ocean floor and is stored for many years. This occurs because of low oxygen concentrations underwater[5].These conditions allow the dead plant material to stay buried without breaking down for decades[5].  

Due to their carbon capturing ability, scientists have recently been researching and developing methods to implement industrial-sized kelp farms[6]. These farms would grow kelp to maturity, harvest it and sink it to the bottom of the ocean in hopes of creating a carbon sink or "blue carbon"[6]. Blue carbon is the stored carbon within coastal and marine ecosystems. These carbon sinks would ensure large amounts of carbon are stored for thousands of years. This potential alternative to regular old-growth forests may be the future of carbon sequestration as they are not prone to wildfires due to their underwater habitat[2]. Not only are they not susceptible to wildfires, they "can sequester up to 20 times more carbon per acre than land forests"[5].

The Cause of Disappearing Kelp Forests

Over the last 50 years, 50-60% of the world’s kelp species have declined. There are many reasons for a species going extinct. In the case of Kelp forests, it's disappearance affects many other marine species, hence the reason why its well being is important.

Water Warming Caused by Climate Change

Due to the rapidly changing climate, countless land species have become endangered or extinct. Unfortunately, the warming climate has increased sea water temperatures, affecting the biodiversity underwater. Since kelp forests are the home to many marine species, it is no doubt that disappearing kelp forests will affect a marine ecosystem as a whole.

Heat Waves that cause ocean warming affect ocean circulation that directly impacts the wellbeing of kelp forests. Warming can lead to “physiological stress, reduces fitness or mortality,”[7] ultimately resulting in “disappearance of entire populations and impacted global kelp distribution patterns”[7]. Climate change can also indirectly decline kelp populations through “facilitating the range expansion of tropical herbivores (a phenomenon known as tropicalization), which overgraze kelp forests and facilitate their replacement by smaller ‘turfing’ algae or corals.”[7] Therefore we can observe that climate change is affecting not only the kelp forests but the whole marine ecosystem and marine species that rely on kelp forest for food, energy, and protection.

Overfishing

Overfishing leads to the decline in kelp forests because it removes the top predators which are fish, leaving a higher density of herbivores to overgraze kelp. A well known example of this happened in Alaska, where “a decline of sea otters due to overfishing in the 20th century led to a population explosion of herbivorous sea urchins, which rapidly overgrazed Giant Kelp forests in the region.”[7]

Over Kelp Harvesting

In recent decades, as the demand for kelp-derived products increased, “commercial wild harvesting has increased, leading to declines of kelp biomass.”[8] Over harvesting kelp forests lead to a disruption in marine ecosystems, and loss of habitat for many marine species that rely on Kelp forests.

Consequences of Disappearing Kelp Forests

Commercial Use

The loss of kelp forests has a substantial effect on human populations, as kelp has many commercial uses. Kelp is numerous in its possible uses, some examples of which are thickening agents in food, farm fertilizer, and feed for live stock[1][9]. The importance of kelp in these commercial factors does not account for the cultural significance it holds within many cultures, as kelp and seaweed are a major component in a number of cultural cuisines. While there may be a number of alternate possibilities for many of kelps uses, the ecological and social aspects of using kelp would be lost with the disappearing kelp forests. Additionally, given kelp's ability to sequester carbon, it provides a carbon neutral or negative option to produce may of the commercial products mentioned above[10]. The loss of kelp forests would not only have an effect on human consumption, but our ability to do so sustainability.

Biodiversity

The disappearance of kelp forests has substantial effects on biodiversity as kelp forests act as terrain for a larger ecosystem[1]. Their disappearance affects populations of abalone, fish, urchin and other animals which use the kelp forests for habitat[2]. Kelp forests provide a major source of shelter from storms and act as sea bed, the loss of this space would mean that many mammals would additionally be affected. Sea birds, sea lions, sea otters and grey whales are just some of the mammals that rely on kelp forest for protection, shelter and as a food provider[2]. With less shelter from predators and the elements, the biodiverse networks that reside in kelp forests would be at risk.

Environmental Impacts

As previously mentioned Kelp forests are a major carbon sequester, being more efficient are carbon sequestering than land forests[5]. The power of kelp to develop carbon sinks without the risk of forest fires releasing that carbon into the atmosphere allows for it to be a powerful mechanism in combating climate change. Without the power of kelp forests to sequester mass amount of carbon dioxide at a time, we lose a major climate ocean-based climate solution[11]. The loss of kelp forests would have a substantial environmental impact in that we would see an increase in the effects of having more carbon in the atmosphere.

Additionally, kelp forests act as a natural breakwater, meaning that they protect the shores from erosion, help provide safe safe harbourage and can help flooding through wave reduction[12]. While not necessarily the most efficient means of acting as a breakwater, kelp forests still function to assist in the process of protecting our shores[12]. The loss of this protection could result in increased coastal flooding, especially considering sea-level rises[12]. In the case of human habitat, the increase in flooding would have substantial effects on coastal human settlements and animal habitat.

Management/Regulation and Policy

Canada (Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries)

Management and regulation of kelp forests in Canada is a process that engages both federal and provincial governments. On a federal level, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) is the main organization that manages kelp beds with some projects run by other parts of the Canadian government[12].

The DFO is integral in managing overfishing in Canada through careful regulation and licensing of fishing, considering overfishing is a leading cause in the disappearance of kelp forests the DFO plays an important role in their regulation[12]. Additionally, the DFO runs area-based management of kelp forests through establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) that prohibit disruptive practices in areas with at-risk marine ecosystems[13]. Additionally, the DFO tracks and studies Atlantic ocean ecosystems including studying the role of kelp forests in Atlantic marine ecosystems[14].

Federal efforts in kelp forest management outside of the DFO include a project that observes kelp forests across 9 sites in the Broken Group Islands of Pacific Rim National Park Reserve[15]. This project assesses kelp forest density, however the focus of this project is not kelp forest regulation, it is relating measures of kelp forest health and subtidal ecosystem health with particular inquiry in specific species interactions[15].

On a provincial level, the British Columbia government regulates and licenses the harvesting of aquatic plants and other marine species through the Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development[16]. Additionally, provincial efforts in BC involve an inventory and mapping system of aquatic plants throughout the province which are documented in the Coastal Resource Information Management System (CRIMS)[17]. Parameters that are documented in CRIMS include density of kelp forests, relative abundance, species and biomass of kelp[17].

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) functions under the US Department of Commerce and works to "...to understand and predict changes in climate, weather, oceans, and coasts, to share that knowledge and information with others, and to conserve and manage coastal and marine ecosystems and resources"[18]. NOAA takes on a number of different projects, ranging from research and education to habitat restoration and protection[18].

Their most recent endeavour regarding the conservation of kelp forests is the Puget Sound Kelp Conservation and Recovery Plan. Partnered with a number of different organizations and regional specialists, the development of the Puget Sound Kelp Conservation and Recovery Plan “identifies existing scientific data gaps, research priorities, and management approaches and establishes a roadmap for kelp conservation on the regional scale”[19]. This report six strategic goals for which they provided possible sustainable actions[19].

Area Based Management

An area based management strategy is Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Areas around British Columbia with high abundance of kelp forests can be protected using MPAs. The Ministry of Environment[20] defines MPAs as “any area of tidal water and seabed in conjunction with the associated natural and cultural features which have been designated in the Protected Areas of British Columbia Act, Ecological Reserve Act, Park Act, Wildlife Act or the Environment and Land Use Act.” About 6.4% of the ocean is protected, and of that 6.4%, only 2.7% are considered strongly protected[1]. There are different levels of protection. The level is influenced and determined by conservation goals, economic interest, social needs, and cultural needs.

An emerging implementation of MPAs, are MPA networks, “a collection of individual marine protected areas that operates co-operatively and synergistically, at various spatial scales, and with a range of protection levels, in order to fulfill ecological aims more effectively and comprehensively than individual sites could alone” as defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature[21]. In creating an MPA network, there are many ecological benefits. Some of which include the protection of function and structure of these areas[21]. The document outlines goals, planning principles, planning regions, governance, and the future of MPAs[21].The national approach for MPAs is through the National Framework for Canada’s Network of Marine Protected Areas.[22]

Further Possible Sustainable Actions

Regulate fishing Near Kelp Forests

Regulating fishing near kelp forests will allow for the ecosystem to balance their predator and prey populations steady. This will prevent overgraze of kelp forests, and allow ecosystem species to healthily remain in their habitat.

Regulate kelp harvesting

Due to the increase in kelp derived products, wild commercial kelp harvesting has increased. Regulating wild commercial kelp harvesting, and designating areas for kelp harvesting can help prevent further loss of kelp biomass.

References

  1. Araújo, M. B., Assis, J. & Serrão, E. A. (2017). Projected climate changes threaten ancient refugia of kelp forests in the North Atlantic, Global Change Biology, 24(1), doi:10.1111/gcb.13818
  2. Boyer, L., Costa, M., Juanes, F. & Schroeder, S. B. (2020) Spatial and temporal persistence of nearshore kelp beds on the west coast of British Columbia, Canada using satellite remote sensing, Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation, 6(3), 327-343. DOI:10.1002/rse2.142
  3. Byrnes, J. E., Cardinale, B. J., Cavanaugh, K. C., Holbrook, S. J., Reed, D. C. & Schmitt, R. J. (2011) Climate-driven increases in storm frequency simplify kelp forest food webs, Global Change Biology, 17(8), 2513-2524. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02409.x
  4. Cameron, M. J., Johnson, C. R., Layton, C., Shelamoff, V., Tatsumi, M. & Wright, J. T. (2021) A successful mode of transplanting adult Ecklonia radiata kelp, and relevance to other habitat-forming macroalgae, Restoration Ecology, 29(5), doi: 10.1111/rec.13412
  5. Campbell, A. H. & Vergés, A. (2020) Kelp forests, Current Biology, 30(16), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.053
  6. Clifton-Ross, J. (2021, March 8). How kelp forests enhance biodiversity and fight climate change. National Environmental Treasure. Retrieved October 14, 2021, from https://www.oursafetynet.org/2021/02/19/how-kelp-forests-enhance-biodiversity-and-fight-climate-change/.
  7. Coleman, M. A., Connell, S. D., Dworjanyn, S. A., Figueira, W., Ghedini, G., Gillanders, B. M. Kelaher, B. P., Provost, E. J. & Russell, B. D. (2016) Climate-driven disparities among ecological interactions threaten kelp forest persistence, Global Change Biology, 23(1), 353-361. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13414
  8. Filbee-Dexter, K. & Wernberg, T. (2018) Rise of Turfs: A New Battlefront for Globally Declining Kelp Forests, Bioscience, 68(2), 64-76. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix147
  9. Foster, S. M. & Schiel, D. R. (2010) Loss of predators and the collapse of southern California kelp forests (?): Alternatives, explanations and generalizations, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 393(1-2), 59-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2010.07.002  
  10. Frusher, S. D., Johnson, C. R., Ling, S. D., & Ridgway, K. R. (2009). Overfishing reduces resilience of kelp beds to climate-driven catastrophic phase shift. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(52), 22341–22345. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907529106
  11. Government of Canada. (2014). Canada-British Columbia Marine Protected Area Network Strategy. https://waves-vagues.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/363827.pdf
  12. Government of Canada. (2021, February 3). Canada's Oceans Now: Atlantic Ecosystems, 2018. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2018/atlantic-ecosystems-ecosystemes-atlantiques/index-eng.html.
  13. Government of Canada. (2020, December 10). Kelp density - Pacific Rim. Open Government Portal. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://open.canada.ca/data/en/dataset/40ae1d02-b4a1-41bf-98f2-6e619dea850a.
  14. Government of Canada. (2020, March 3). Marine Protected Areas. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/mpa-zpm/index-eng.html.
  15. Government of Canada. (2021, July 22). Protecting Oceans. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/index-eng.html.
  16. Gustavsson, L. (2021, December 2). We need kelp: How seaforestation can combat climate change. The Narwhal. Retrieved December 2021, from https://thenarwhal.ca/kelp-seaforestation-global-warming/.
  17. Hurlimann, Sylvia (July 04, 2019). "How Kelp Naturally Combats Global Climate Change". Harvard University: Science in the News. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2019/how-kelp-naturally-combats-global-climate-change/
  18. Iovenko, C. (2021, August 26). After mystery sea star die-off, could captive breeding rebalance California's underwater forests? Animals. Retrieved October 14, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/mystery-sea-star-die-off-inspires-new-efforts-to-save-kelp.
  19. Johnson, A. E., & Maher-Johnson , L. E. (2018, November 2). Soil and seaweed: Farming our way to a climate solution. Scientific American Blog Network. Retrieved December 2021, from https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/soil-and-seaweed-farming-our-way-to-a-climate-solution/.
  20. Kelp Forest. Oceana. (n.d.). Retrieved October 14, 2021, from https://oceana.org/marine-life/marine-science-and-ecosystems/kelp-forest.
  21. Lowry , D. (2021, June 15). Kelp conservation. Kelp Conservation. Retrieved December 2021, from https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/ecosystems/kelp-conservation.
  22. Ministry of Environment. (2007). Provincial Marine Protected Areas in British Columbia. BC Parks. https://bcparks.ca/conserve/mpa.pdf
  23. Narayan, S., Beck, M. W., Reguero, B. G., Losada, I. J., van Wesenbeeck, B., Pontee, N., Sanchirico, J. N., Ingram, J. C., Lange, G.-M., & Burks-Copes, K. A. (2016). The effectiveness, costs and coastal protection benefits of natural and nature-based defences. PLOS ONE, 11(5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735
  24. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2021, November 16). About our agency. About Our Agency . Retrieved December 2021, from https://www.noaa.gov/about-our-agency.
  25. Province of British Columbia. (2020, October 6). Aquatic Plant Harvesting. Fisheries and Aquaculture. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/agriculture-seafood/fisheries-and-aquaculture/commercial-fisheries/aquatic-plant-harvesting.
  26. Province of British Columbia. (2021, September 8). Coastal Resource Information Management System (CRIMS). Geographic Data. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/data/geographic-data-services/topographic-data/coast.
  27. The Blue Carbon Initiative (2019). "Mitigating Climate Change Through Coastal Ecosystem Management". The Blue Carbon Initiative. https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/
  28. The potentials of ocean farming: Can seaweed and kelp be the next kale? Gro Intelligence. (2016, September 23). Retrieved December 2021, from https://gro-intelligence.com/insights/articles/farming-seaweed-alternative-food.
  29. UC Santa Cruz. (2021, September 28). Sea star wasting syndrome. MARINe. Retrieved October 14, 2021, from https://marine.ucsc.edu/data-products/sea-star-wasting/.
  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 "Kelp Forest". Oceana. Retrieved November 7, 2021.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Clifton-Ross, Jaime (March 08, 2021). "How kelp forests enhance biodiversity and fight climate change". National Environmental Treasure. Retrieved November 08, 2021. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  3. ↑ Iovenko, C. (2021, August 26). After mystery sea star die-off, could captive breeding rebalance California's underwater forests? Animals. Retrieved October 14, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/mystery-sea-star-die-off-inspires-new-efforts-to-save-kelp.
  4. ↑ Frusher, S. D., Johnson, C. R., Ling, S. D., & Ridgway, K. R. (2009). Overfishing reduces resilience of kelp beds to climate-driven catastrophic phase shift. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(52), 22341–22345. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907529106
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Hurlimann, Sylvia (July 04, 2019). "How Kelp Naturally Combats Global Climate Change". Harvard University: Science in the News. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 The Blue Carbon Initiative (2019). "Mitigating Climate Change Through Coastal Ecosystem Management". The Blue Carbon Initiative.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Campbell, Alexandra; Verges, Adriana (August, 2020). "Kelp forests". Current Biology. 30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.053 Check |doi= value (help) – via Current Biology. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ↑ "The intensity of kelp harvesting shapes the population structure of the foundation species Lessonia trabeculata along the Chilean coastline". Marine Biology. 11 April 2021. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-021-03870-7 Check |doi= value (help).
  9. ↑ Johnson, Ayana Elizabeth; Maher-Johnson, Louise Elizabeth (November 2, 2018). "Soil and Seaweed: Farming Our Way to a Climate Solution". Scientific American.
  10. ↑ "The Potentials of Ocean Farming: Can Seaweed and Kelp be the Next Kale?". Gro Intelligence. 23 September 2016.
  11. ↑ Gustavsson, Lasse (Dec. 2, 2021). "We need kelp: how seaforestation can combat climate change". The Narwhal. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Siddharth, Narayan; Wesenbeeck, Bregje; Beck, Michael; Reguero, Borja; Losada, Iñigo (2016). "The Effectiveness, Costs and Coastal Protection Benefits of Natural and Nature-Based Defences". PLoS One. 11. doi:doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735 Check |doi= value (help) – via ProQuest. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":6" defined multiple times with different content
  13. ↑ Government of Canada. (2020, March 3). Marine Protected Areas. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/mpa-zpm/index-eng.html.
  14. ↑ Government of Canada. (2021, February 3). Canada's Oceans Now: Atlantic Ecosystems, 2018. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2018/atlantic-ecosystems-ecosystemes-atlantiques/index-eng.html.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Government of Canada. (2020, December 10). Kelp density - Pacific Rim. Open Government Portal. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://open.canada.ca/data/en/dataset/40ae1d02-b4a1-41bf-98f2-6e619dea850a.
  16. ↑ Province of British Columbia. (2020, October 6). Aquatic Plant Harvesting. Fisheries and Aquaculture. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/agriculture-seafood/fisheries-and-aquaculture/commercial-fisheries/aquatic-plant-harvesting.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Province of British Columbia. (2021, September 8). Coastal Resource Information Management System (CRIMS). Geographic Data. Retrieved November 10, 2021, from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/data/geographic-data-services/topographic-data/coast.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "About our agency". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. October 27, 2021. Retrieved November 08, 2021. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Kelp Conservation". NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION. June 15, 2021. Retrieved November 08, 2021. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  20. ↑ Ministry of Environment (2007). "Provincial Marine Protected Areas in British Columbia" (PDF). BC Parks.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Government of Canada (2014). "Canada-British Columbia Marine Protected Area Network Strategy" (PDF).
  22. ↑ Government of Canada (2011). "National Framework For Canada's Network of Marine Protected Areas" (PDF). Fisheries and Oceans Canda.


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