Course:KIN366/ConceptLibrary/Long-Term Athlete Development

Movement Experiences for Children
KIN 366
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Instructor:	Dr. Shannon Bredin
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Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD), according to Heritage Canada, is an initiative for the governing athletic bodies in Canada that focuses on the development of athletes in reference to the likes of growth, maturation, and development (Canadian Heritage 2013). To specify, it is a "seven-stage training, competition, and recovery pathway guiding an individual's experience in sport and physical activity from infancy through all phases of adulthood" (CS4L 2014). While the concept of LTAD is specific in nature, the overall scope is to initiate generalized guidelines to all individuals by means of a method of best practice. While specific sport training is incorporated into this means of thinking, the underlying theme is to provide groundwork for a healthy, active society. LTAD development in Canada is facilitated internationally through the International Sport for Life Society, where all participating national athletic bodies will convene at what is known as the World Long-Term Athlete Development Symposium. For information on the 2014 World Long-Term Athlete Development Symposium see http://www.is4ls.org/conferences/wltad-symposium

History & Origin

LTAD has been called the "brainchild" of Dr. Istvan Balyi - who is an expert in planning and periodization (Robertson and Way, 2005). According to Robertson and Way (2005), it was Dr. Balyi's assessment of the key issues that were facing the sporting world in Canada - specifically British Columbia - that spurred on the development of this model. Within the textbook entitled "Long-Term Athlete Development" by Balyi et al. (2013), the LTAD model was derived from the various athlete development models that were in place from the 1950s to the 1980s. The aim behind creating this model was to "improve the quality of sport programs so all participants . . . could reach their potential" (Balyi et al. 2013). To further this point, it wasn't just for the sports programs themselves, it was to create the realization of an individual's potential from an early age (Balyi et al. 2013). In doing so, the LTAD posed to be a promising solution for the shortcomings found within the system, prior to its arrival. One point of emphasis made by Balyi in his research was that each of the athlete development models prior to LTAD based their criteria from chronological age, without consideration of biological or developmental age; an important characteristic that he would ultimately include in his model (Balyi et al. 2013).

Model Overview

The seven stages within Canada's LTAD model are divided into two basic component divisions. Stages 1,2, and 3 focus on developing physical literacy (CS4L 2014). Physical literacy will be described in more detail. Stages 4 through 6 provide specialized training, or elite training, for individuals looking to compete at the highest level of a specific sport (CS4L 2014). The final stage is a more-so generalized stay geared towards facilitating "lifelong participation" in sport and physical activity (CS4L 2014).

Stage 1: Active Start

This stage is directed towards children aging 6 years and under. The overall idea for this stage is to foster the development of fundamental movement skills through the likes of play (CS4L 2014). The idea behind this stage is to provide children with the opportunity to experience the important motor milestones associated with the fundamental movement skills by primarily providing "unstructured active play" (CS4L 2014).

Stage 2: FUNdamentals

During this stage, there is slight separation in terms of gender. The age ranges are 6-8 years and 6-9 years for females and males, respectively (CS4L 2014). Individuals in this stage are driven primarily by the concept of FUN through activity, however, it is recognized that there may be a competitive sporting environment during this stage (CS4L 2014). While there may not be a sport specialization aspect to this stage, it is encouraged that preferred sports be highlighted multiple times per week. As with most guidelines, there are exceptions to the rule - as there are a variety of "recognized early-specialization sports", such as gymnastics (CS4L 2014). The main emphasis here, though, is the continued development of physical literacy.

Stage 3: Learn to Train

Highlighting females aged 8-11 and males aged 9-12, this stage incorporates a child's readiness to begin training through a formal means (CS4L 2014). Often referred to as the "The Golden Age of Learning", this stage stays focused on an individual's development of general sport skills, which can ideally be applied to a variety of activities and programs (CS4L 2014).

Stage 4: Train to Train

In this first stage geared towards specialized training, it is said that "young athletes need to build an aerobic base and consolidate their sport-specific skills" (CS4L 2014). It is recognized that during this time period, it is appropriate for individuals to begin fortifying sport skills and tactics (CS4L 2014). Overall, the main goal is not winning in a competition setting, but rather to maximize long-term potential (CS4L 2014).

Stage 5: Train to Compete

The main concept within this stage is for athletes to choose a sport to specifically train for, in hopes of excelling (CS4L 2014). Throughout this stage, there is a commitment needed, for high-volume/high-intensity training (CS4L 2014). Aside from the physical aspects of training, it is common to see the principles of nutrition, biomechanics, and injury prevention/management incorporated into the regime (CS4L 2014). This approach is both specific and holistic to sport and competition.

Stage 6: Train to Win

Moving forward from the development and optimization of skills and tactics, this stage is the final high-performance stream section (CS4L 2014). The focus here is success on all stages; performance is key in determining the success of the program (CS4L 2014). There is often times the association with the term "full-time athlete" during this stage (CS4L 2014).

Stage 7: Active for Life

This is the final stage in the LTAD program, and is appropriate for all ages. All in all, this stage encompasses the individual's ability to "enjoy lifelong participation in a variety of competitive and recreational opportunities in sport and physical activity" (CS4L 2014).

Modifications for People with Disabilities

The LTAD model recognizes athletes with a disability (AWADs) the same as it does for able-bodied athletes. In the publication entitled "No Accidental Champions", the additional factors that need consideration are identified (Robertson and Higgs 2006). While the premise of the model is virtually the same for AWAD and able-bodied athletes there are a few key differences that change the overall process (Robertson and Higgs 2006):

Children with congenital disabilities may not have the same opportunities to develop FMS, which could be contributed to discrepancies in opportunity.
AWADs may operate in an environment where there are participants not found in able-bodied sport
Many AWADs require equipment or facilities adapted to take full advantage of their abilities, and to limit the impact of their disability
Access to the appropriate amounts of competitive experiences may be difficult
Some AWADs need a support system that isn't found within an able-bodied sporting environment

There are also two additional stages implemented to the model, those being:

Awareness stage: This stage highlights the fact that opportunities for PWDs are not always recognized. The sporting community needs to develop a plan to increase awareness, and to make the opportunities more readily available for AWADs.

First Contact/Recruitment Stage:This stage aims to enhance an individuals "first experience" which has shown to be beneficial for continued participation.

Development of Physical Literacy

While the LTAD acknowledges the fact that each individual grows and develops differently, it is recognized that appropriate facilitation and practice can act as a catalyst along what is referred to as the "optimal pathway" (Balyi et al. 2013). While the references to physical literacy are abundant, the focus of the LTAD model emphasizes the physiologic aspect of physical literacy - being the development and competence in fundamental movement skills and fundamental sport skills in short (Ford et al. 2011). The LTAD model appears to provide "evidence to support the idea of enhanced neural and muscular adaptations through exposure to [movement and sport skills] . . . in childhood", although further research is needed (Ford et al. 2011).

For a detailed description of physical literacy, see Physical Literacy

Approach to FMS & Athletic Performance

There are numerous works of literature showing the benefits of continued, consistent, and deliberate physical activity. However, the LTAD model aims to improve on the skills necessary for each individual to not only compete in sport, but to ensure that each vital stage of growth and development is met; both of which contribute to sustained, life long physical activity. Balyi et al. state that the fundamental movement skills (FMS) are just as important to the recreational athlete as they are to the potential Olympian (2013). These key components are obtained through learning and proper practice techniques - both of which are components of each stage within the LTAD model. However, when analysing and applying the principles of LTAD, it is heralded that practitioners need to incorporate specific strategies that go beyond the likes of typical physical education curricula (Balyi et al. 2013). In terms of FMS as a whole, LTAD highlights the use of a variety of sports during early childhood to acquire and improve upon each skill - ranging from agility and balance, to striking and rhythmic movements (Balyi et al. 2013).

Athletic Performance

Aerobic Performance

The LTAD model focuses on capitalizing on an individual's "windows of opportunity" to develop aerobic fitness, and therefore, performance (Ford et al. 2011). While these "windows" vary per the individual, it is agreed that aerobic capacity should be actively developed throughout childhood and adolescence, as a means for creating a base for further maturation and growth (Ford et al. 2011). To clarify, the ideas of aerobic performance are incorporated into an individual's practice right from the first stage of the LTAD model.

Anaerobic Performance

According to Ford et al. (2011), the key factors for athletic performance under the anaerobic umbrella are speed, strength, and power. The LTAD model focuses on each of these by, again, capitalizing on an individual's "window of opportunity" (Ford et al. 2011). To specify, speed is said to have two windows of opportunity that exist; the first being within 7-9 year of age for boys and girls, and the second occurring the ages of 11 and 13 years for girls, and between 13 and 15 years for boys (Ford et al. 2011). The second window, according to Viru et al (1999), differs for boys and girls due to maturational aspects.

For strength, the LTAD model states specifically that optimal training periods again differ for boys and girls. For boys, the optimal period is said to be 12-18 months following peak height velocity (Balyi and Hamilton, 2004). Conversely, for girls, the window is said to be during the onset of the first menarche (Balyi and Hamilton, 2004). While there are cautionary advisories for strength training during adolescence, it is recommended based on proper design and implementation by professionals (Ford et al. 2011).

With the current research, power hasn't been associated with an in particular window of opportunity during the childhood years, but it does not withhold the importance of training for power during the developmental years (Ford et al. 2011).

Challenges

As with every program/strategy, there are a fair share of disadvantages and challenges that coincide with the LTAD model. While not every disadvantage is listed here, these are some examples of the types of issues being faced, and will need to be addressed in order to maintain forward progress for this model of development. Firstly, the idea of hostility and system inertia poses as a definite challenge (Norris 2010). System inertia refers to the fact that the LTAD model has influence on much more than just the sport/training regimes across the country (Norris 2010). This causes many difficulties in terms of policy, which can often times become overwhelming (Norris 2010). The hostility aspect comes from the idea that many sporting systems across the country involve many volunteers, and such a model increases the workload and stresses of these individuals (Norris 2010). Another disadvantage to this program is the fact that it is based off of a top-down approach. Since Sport Canada is a federal governing body, and there is a large portion of program planning and implementation at the grass roots level, it creates competency barriers (Norris 2010). It is difficult to reach local levels of sport programming, and therefore can lead to program discrepancies (Norris 2010). A final challenge addressed here is universality. Since LTAD strives to develop FMS through a generalized criteria, training grounds play a key role (Lambert 2010). According to Lambert (2010), "the most important training ground for skill development occurs at school." That being said, each school should be equipped with similar facilities and ultimately be able to provide similar opportunities for each student, across the board (Lambert 2010). However, this is not the case. According to studies done in South Africa, children from poorer areas tend to under perform in comparison to those from wealthier communities; evidence that LTAD goes beyond principle (Lambert 2010).

International Comparisons

To parallel the LTAD program integrated in Canada through Canadian Sport for Life, it is relevant to examine the likes of programs outside the country - or even the continent - to recognize flaws and ultimately develop a scenario of best practice. When looking at the LTAD model and its implications within the UK, Paul Ford et al. (2011) highlight the fact that there is a "lack of empirical data to support such a long-term periodized model" and therefore it should be viewed as a "work in progress". That being said, there is currently two coaching texts that adhere the concepts and application of the LTAD model, and strides are being made to enforce these ideals as a framework moving forward (Ford et al. 2011). Another international subject to be briefly examined will be Australia. According to Green and Houlihan (2005), the ideals of athlete development as a whole was pushed forward in the early 1990s, after Sydney had been awarded the Summer Olympic Games. From this, the formation of the National Elite Sports Council (NESC) in 1993 was formed, in hopes to facilitate co-ordination across the nation for all sporting programs (Green et al. 2005). Many of their elite development protocols and practices share many commonalities with those found in former Eastern bloc countries (Green and Houlihan 2005). To put in perspective, these ideals would parallel with stages 4 through 6 in the LTAD model in Canada. To sum up these two comparative programs, a brief look provides us with information as to how other countries implement athlete development - in the UK, we see a very similar pathway, while in Australia, we can see the emphasis on specialization instead of the holistic approach. Further examination into the detailed programs within nations such as these can provide insight into the current model in Canada, and can help improve on what is slowly becoming an international framework.

Conclusion

The implementation of the LTAD model in Canada has provided the framework for a healthier nation and excellence in sport on an international stage. While many references coin this model as a "work in progress", it has aided Canada in becoming one of the world's front-runners in terms of continued physical activity. As further research is conducted and refinements are made, the future is bright for sport governing bodies not only in Canada, but around the world.

References

Balyi, I Way, I, Higgs, R, Colin. 2013. Long-Term Athlete Development. Champaign, IL, USA: Human Kinetics. Accessed from UBC Library on February 24th, 2014

Canadian Sport for Life (CS4L), 2014. LEARN - CS4L & LTAD. Retrieved from http://www.canadiansportforlife.ca/ on February 24th, 2014

Ford, P, De Ste Croix, M, Lloyd, R et al. 2011. The Long-Term Athlete Development model: Physiological evidence and application. Journal of Sports Sciences. 29(4):389-402

Green, M, Houlihan, B. 2005. Elite Sport Development: Policy Learning and Political Priorities. London, EN: Routledge. Accessed from UNC Library on February 25th, 2014

Lambert, M. 2010. Lack of Transformation in Sport and the Long-Term Athlete Development Programme. South African Journal of Sports Medicine. 22(3): 54

Norris, S. 2010. Long-Term Athlete Development Canada: Attempting System Change and Multi-Agency Cooperation. Current Sports Medicine Reports. 9(6):379-382

Robertson, S, Higgs, C. 2006. No Accidental Champions, Long-Term Athlete Development for Athletes with a Disability: A supplement to Canadian Sport for Life. Canadian Sport Centres.

Robertson, S, Way, R. 2005. Long-Term Athlete Development. Coaches Report via http://www.ontariosailing.ca 11(3):6-12

Viru, A, Loko, J, Harro, M. et al. 1999. Critical periods in the development of performance capacity during childhood and adolescence. European Journal of Physical Education. 4(1):75-119