Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Vertical Jumping

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Vertical Jumping

Defining the Concept and Its Importance

Figure 1. This is a drawing of the standard position for squat jump and countermovement jump.
Figure 2. This is a drawing of what squat jump and countermovement jump look like.

The objective of vertical jumping is “to jump vertically as high as possible from a standing position” (State of Victoria, 2009, p.22). There are two types of vertical jumping: a squat jump and a countermovement jump (Linthorne, 2001). The countermovement jump involves a downward movement with flexion of the knees and hips followed by quick extensions of the two joints that pushes the body vertically into the air (Linthorne, 2001). A squat jump does not include the downward, countermovement that pre-stretches the leg muscles, but instead only involves the extension of the knees and hips from the already flexed joints to push the body off the ground (Linthorne, 2001). The effectiveness of the countermovement component is a contributor to vertical jump performance differences (i.e. a difference in jump height) of children during years of fundamental skill acquisition (Floria & Harrison, 2013). For children, it is important that they not only have countermovement of the legs but also the arms to assist in jump performance (Kiddo, 2019).

Developing good vertical jumping skills is important because it is a fundamental movement skill (Gallahue & Ozmun, 2002). Research has shown that fundamental movement skills developed in elementary school can predict adolescents’ participation in physical activity; thus, having a good foundation of fundamental movement skills may be critical for future participation in physical activities (Barnett, van Beurden, Morgan, Brooks, & Beard, 2009). Additionally, kids who establish better movement skill competency may spend more time in organized physical activity because it allows them to perform better in sports where many complex forms of the fundamental movement skills are involved (Okely, Booth, & Patterson, 2001). Moreover, a systematic review of “benefits associated with [fundamental movement skills] competency in children and adolescents” (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010, p.1021) concluded that higher fundamental movement skills competency is correlated with higher physical activity level, better cardiorespiratory fitness, and lower weight status (Lubans et al., 2010). Therefore, children who establish vertical jumping competency are more likely to enjoy the benefits of having higher fundamental motor skills competency.

Besides vertical jumping as a fundamental movement skill, it is also a common skill involved in many sports and activities (Floria, Gomez-Landero, & Harrison, 2014). It is an essential fundamental skill to have for various team sports, such as basketball (Kellis, Tsitskaris, Nikopoulou, & Mousikou., 1999), volleyball (Ziv & Lidor, 2010), and soccer (Gerodimos, Manou, Loakimidis, Perkos, & Kellis, 2006), and the mastery of this skill may determine the success of athletes (Karatrantou, Gerodimos, Voutselas, & Manouras, 2019). In addition, having a better vertical jump performance may indicate better coordination at the knee and hip joint, which is beneficial because coordination is important for the development of more complex motor skills seen in sports (Harrison, Ryan, & Hayes 2007).

In conclusion, vertical jumping is an important skill for children to acquire because it is a fundamental movement skill that can help children establish healthy, active lifestyles, and it provides more opportunities for them to participate in sports.

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

Role in Childhood Development/Developmental Sequence

Vertical jumping behaviour may emerge around three years old (Jensen Phillips, & Clark, 1994), and it should be mastered by around eight years old (Kiddo, 2019). There are different developmental sequences which a child can acquire the skill of vertical jumping, but they are all centered around the most important basic criteria: (1) eyes focused forwards throughout the jump (2) crouch with ankles, knees, and hips bent (3) arms swing behind the body (4) forceful upward swing of arms for take-off (5) legs straighten in the air (6) ankles, knees, and hips bend on landing (7) controlled landing with no more than one step in any direction (Kiddo, 2019; State of Victoria, 2009). One developmental sequence included in the fundamental motor skills manual provided by the Department of Education in Victoria, Australia (State of Victoria, 2009) is that kids can be expected to have mastered a controlled landing with no more than one step in any direction by age five, eyes looking upwards throughout the jump at age six, and feet contacting the ground with balls of the feet and bending the knees to absorb the force of landing, crouching with knees bent and arms behind body before jumping, and arms forcefully swinging upwards as legs straighten to take off at the age of nine. Each stage of movement acquisition is described below:

Figure 3. This is a drawing of what each stage of vertical jumping may look like.
  1. Emerging: At this stage, kids should have controlled landing with no more than one step in any direction. However, their eyes don’t focus upwards during the jump, and the ankles, knees, and hips are only slightly bent before the jump; the arms may not swing behind the body and do not forcefully swing upward for the jump; the legs tuck underneath the body in the air; also, they land flat-footed, and the ankles, knees, and hips don’t bend much upon landing (Kiddo, 2019).
  2. Developing: At this stage, their arms are able to swing behind the body but have limited upward swing upon take-off; their legs are tucked under the body in the air; they land flat-footed, and the ankles, knees, and hip bend slightly upon landing (Kiddo, 2019).
  3. Acquired: At this stage, they are able to bend their knees and hips more with the arms swinging farther back before take-off; the arms swing upwards and are more extended while the legs are straightened when in the air; they land on the balls of the feet and bend the ankles, knees and hips upon landing (Kiddo, 2019).

Contemporary Issues

A concerning contemporary issue is that children are generally becoming less competent in fundamental movement skills (Hardy, Barnett, Espinel, and Okely, 2013; Hardy, Reinten-Reynolds, Espinel, Zask, & Okely, 2012), and this may cause great harm to their health throughout life long development (Hardy et al., 2012). Children from ages 0 to 4 seem to be having increased television viewing time, and this is associated with decreased motor skill development (LeBlanc et al., 2012). Adding on to this, Hardy et al. (2013) evaluated trends in five fundamental movement skills (sprint run, vertical jump, catch, overarm throw, and kick) in child and adolescent between 1997 to 2010, and they found that overall competency was low in 1997; from 1997 and 2004, the increase in competency was greatest for both boys and girls, and from 2004 and 2010, vertical jump competency decreased by 40-50% for all except high school boys. By 2010, overall fundamental motor skill competency still remained low (Hardy et al., 2013).  Changes in the competency of fundamental skills may be related to the different types of sports that boys and girls begin to be involved in (Hardy et al., 2013). Hardy et al. (2012) found that within the overall trend of low fundamental movement skill competency, girls have lower object-control skills that are often associated with ball sports, and this could result in a lower vertical jumping competency as it is a critical element in many ball sports (Gerodimos et al., 2006; Kellis et al., 1999; Ziv et al., 2010). The consequences of low fundamental movement skills competency include having low cardiorespiratory fitness, higher weight status, and lower participation in physical activities (Hardy et al., 2013). As a result, it is important for children, especially girls, to form a foundation of fundamental movement skills during early ages not only to prevent the aforementioned consequences (Hardy et al., 2013; LeBlanc et al., 2012), but also to encourage a life-long development of a more physically active lifestyle (Barnett et al., 2009).

Practical Applications

Activity 1: Island Jumping

Purpose: By setting a target distance to which each participant needs to jump to, the participants are encouraged to practice performing all the components of the acquired jump phase (Figure 3). If children do not perform most or all of the components of the acquire jump phase, they are limited in their ability to reach the targets effectively, efficiently, and safely. This is because an emerging jump or a developing jump does not produce enough power or height that is required to jump far. Important components to gain power and height is the swinging the arms back before take-off, arms swing upwards when in the air, and extending the legs when in the air, which can be practiced in this activity.

By setting targets, children are able to practice jumping with control, practicing the components to land on the balls of the feet and to bend the ankles, knees, and hips in order to absorb the force of the landing. The participants are also able to practice keeping their eyes on the target in front of them and to land with precision and accuracy.

Figure 4. This is an example of the set-up for activity 1.

Target Age: Children aged 3-8 years. Vertical jumping may emerge around 3 years old and should be mastered by around 8 years old.

Apparatus/Equipment:

Equipment:

  • Gymnastics mats
  • Yoga mats
  • Silicon circles
  • Hula hoops

Environmental space/set-up:

  • Scatter all equipment on the edges of the activity space with variety between objects adjacent to each other. These objects are named “islands”.
  • Place the islands close enough so children can jump from one to another

Instructions: For approximately 8-10 minutes, the children are instructed to jump from island to island in a clockwise direction. The objective of the game is to jump to all the islands without falling in the "water" (floor of activity space) (Active for Life, 2013).

Modification (Lower Difficulty):

  • Bring the islands closer together
  • Bring the islands directly in front of each other in a straight line, practicing only jumping forwards with the same distance between the jumps.  
  • Jump to one island, jump on the same island as powerful as possible upwards, landing on the same island with as much control as possible. Jump to the next island and do the same for all islands.
  • Instruct children to only focus on one component of the acquired jump for 5 consecutive jumps. For example, to only focus on bending the ankles, knees, and hips more before take-off for 5 consecutive jumps.
  • Remove hula hoops to ensure the safety of the children, especially for those who do not possess enough jumping power and risk landing on the hula hoop instead of inside the hula hoop.

Modification (Higher Difficulty):

  • Bring the islands farther apart.
  • Vary the distance between the islands to practice switching in power and posture between jumps, gaining a better understanding of the effects of completing all acquired jump components.
  • Jump off two feet and land on one.
  • Jump off one foot and land on two.
  • Place the islands in a less organized manner (i.e. diagonally in front of each other)
  • Using smaller objects as the island to help children practice jumping with greater precision and accuracy.

Activity 2: Jump Tug of War

Purpose: This game allows the participants to practice jumping with as much power as possible, while still maintaining control when landing. To jump with as much power as possible, the participants will need to perform all the components of the acquired jump phase (Figure 3), similarly to Activity 1. If the participants do not perform most or all of the components of the acquire jump phase, they are limited in their ability to jump as far as possible effectively, efficiently, and safely. However, because there are no set targets in this game to jump onto, the participants do not practice jumping to a specific spot, and therefore are not limited in attempting to jump with power.

This game also encourages teamwork, where one partner can observe the jump of their partner and either learn from it or provide feedback to help them jump further. By doing so, the children are able to observe, learn, and practice how to jump with the proper components from each other, receiving constant feedback. The participants will find greater motivation to perform better jumps as they are competing against another team of participants and wanting to contribute to winning with their partner in the game.

As each jump needs to be marked by a bean bag, the children need to ensure that they are landing with control in order to play the game fairly. In order to jump with control, the children need to land on the balls of the feet and to bend the ankles, knees, and hips in order to absorb the force of the landing. Also, the participants will need to ensure that they are not taking a step after landing to ensure that the beanbag is marked accurately. Additionally, the participants will practice looking ahead of them to jump in a straight line to gain as much distance as possible to reach the territory of the opposing team.

Target Age: Children aged 5-8 years. Vertical jumping may emerge around 3 years old and should be mastered by around 8 years old. As this game requires slightly more instruction and control, it is more suitable for slightly older children.

Apparatus/Equipment: Tape to creates lines on the floor, small bean bags

Instructions: Using tape, mark one line on each of the team’s ends, parallel to one another, indicating “territory” A and B. Then, mark one line at the center point between the lines parallel to these end lines. Divide children into teams of 2. One team competes against another team. The first participant in Team A stands at the center line marked on the floor and jumps into Team B’s territory, starting and landing on two feet. The participant’s landing spot is marked with a bean bag. The first participant from team B stands beside the bean bag and jumps back towards Team A’s territory. Repeat until everyone on each team has jumped 5 times. The winning team is the one who has passed the other team’s line or is closer to the other team’s line (Active for Life, 2014).

Figure 5. This is an example of the set-up for activity 2.

Modification (Lower Difficulty):

  • Make the end lines closer towards the line in the center.
  • Allow for more than 5 jumps per participant.

Modification (Higher Difficulty):

  • Make the end lines farther from the line in the center.
  • Take-off with one foot and land with two feet
  • Take-off with two feet and land on one foot.
  • Allow for less than 5 jumps per participant.

Summary

The fundamental movement skill of vertical jumping is developed between the ages of 3 to 8 years old, and can have major implications on a child’s health. Mastery of vertical jumping is dependent on the ability to perform the sequential steps of vertical jumping, as well as learning both countermovement and squat jumps. Proper development of vertical jumping can influence a child’s future motor skill development, sport participation, and lifestyle habits. As sedentary lifestyles are becoming more prominent amongst young children, it is important to include physical activities, such as jumping, as a major part of a child’s physical literacy.

References

  1. Barnett, L. M., van Beurden, E., Morgan, P. J., Brooks, L. O., & Beard, J. R. (2009). Childhood motor skill proficiency as a predictor of adolescent physical activity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44(3), 252-259. 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.07.004
  2. Floria, P., Gomez-Landero, L. A., & Harrison, A. J. (2014). Variability in the application of force during the vertical jump in children and adults. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 30(6), 679-684. 10.1123/jab.2014-0043
  3. Floria, P., & Harrison, A. J. (2013). Ground reaction force differences in the countermovement jump in girls with different levels of performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84(3), 329-335. 10.1080/02701367.2013.813896
  4. Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (2002). Understanding motor dvelopment: infants, children, adolescents, adults. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
  5. Gerodimos, V., Manou, V., Loakimidis, P., Perkos, S., & Kellis, S. (2006). Vertical jumping ability in elite young soccer players. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 51(2), 89-101.
  6. Hardy, L. L., Barnett, L., Espinel, P., & Okely, A. D. (2013). Thirteen-Year Trends in Child and Adolescent Fundamental Movement Skills: 1997–2010. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 45(10), 1965-1970. 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318295a9fc
  7. Hardy, L. L., Reinten-Reynolds, T., Espinel, P., Zask, A., & Okely, A. D. (2012). Prevalence and correlates of low fundamental movement skill competency in children. Pediatrics, 130(2), e390-e398. 10.1542/peds.2012-0345
  8. Harrison, A. J., Ryan, W., & Hayes, K. (2007). Functional data analysis of joint coordination in the development of vertical jump performance. Sports Biomechanics, 6(2), 199-214. 10.1080/14763140701323042
  9. Jensen, J. L., Phillips, S. J., & Clark, J. E. (1994). For young jumpers, differences are in the movement's control, not its coordination. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 65(3), 258-268. 10.1080/02701367.1994.10607627
  10. Karatrantou, K., Gerodimos, V., Voutselas, V., & Manouras, N. (2019). Can sport-specific training affect vertical jumping ability during puberty? Biology of Sport, 36(3), 217-224. 10.5114/biolsport.2019.85455
  11. Kellis, S., Tsitskaris, G., Nikopoulou, M., & Mousikou, K. (1999). The evaluation of jumping ability of male and female basketball players according to their chronological age and major leagues. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 13(1), 40-46.
  12. Kiddo. (2019). Jumping. Retrieved from https://kiddo.edu.au/skills/jumping
  13. LeBlanc, A. G., Spence, J. C., Carson, V., Gorber, S. C., Dillman, C., Janssen, I., ..., & Tremblay, M. S. (2012). Systematic review of sedentary behavior and health indicators in the early years (aged 0-4 years). Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 37(4), 753-772. 10.1139/h2012-063
  14. Linthorne, N. P. (2001). Analysis of standing vertical jumps using a force platform. American Journal of Physics, 69(11), 1198-1204. 10.1119/1.1397460
  15. Lubans, D. R., Morgan, P. J., Cliff, D. P., Barnett, L. M., & Okely, A. D. (2010). Fundamental movement skills in children and adolescents: review of associated health benefits. Sports Medicine, 40(12), 1019-1035. 10.2165/11536850-000000000-00000
  16. Okely, A. D., Booth, M. L., & Patterson, J. W. (2001). Relationship of physical activity to fundamental movement skills among adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33(11), 1899-1904. 10.1097/00005768-200111000-00015
  17. State of Victoria. (2009). Fundamental motor skills: a manual for classroom teachers. https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/teachers/teachingresources/social/physed/fmsteacher.pdf
  18. Ziv, G., & Lidor, R. (2010). Vertical jump in female and male volleyball players: a review of observational and experimental studies. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(4), 556-567. 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01083.x
  19. Active for Life. (2013). Jumping 3.1: Island Jumping. Retrieved from https://activeforlife.com/content/uploads/2013/11/LP_Jump_3.1_horizontal_vertical.pdf
  20. Active for Life. (2014). Jumping 3.2: Jump tug-o-war. Retrieved from https://activeforlife.com/content/uploads/2014/03/LP_Jump_3.2_jump_tug_o_war.pdf
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