Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Variability in Practice

Defining the Concept and Its Importance

To understand the concept of variability in practice and the importance of understanding the role it plays in the motor development of children, it is useful to first define schema theory. According to Van Rossum (1990), schema theory is “a theory about the storage, representation and management of previous experience[s]” (p. 389). Accordingly, schemata are systems that store and organize past experiences into categories and when we experience a new task, we use previous knowledge stored in a relevant schema to succeed in this task (Yamada & Itsukushima, 2013). For example, in newborn babies who commonly exhibit grasping reflexes, their “grasping schema is differentiated in use as [they] grasp different things” (Toren, 2014, p. 402). Therefore, based off of this information, we can come to the conclusion that when children are first learning a new movement, they use relevant schemata from past movement experiences to enhance their learning of a new skill. Furthermore, when learning different movement skills it is proposed that the increased use of variability in practice, increases the ability of a schema to adapt to new movement experiences (Graydon & Griffin, 1996). Moreover, variability in practice takes place by adding various parameters to a task instead of just performing a task with one constant parameter (Graydon & Griffin, 1996). For example, in an experiment conducted by Graydon and Griffin (1996), preschoolers assigned to a variable practice group who were tasked with throwing a bean bag at a target, encountered variability in practice by throwing the bean bag at the target from various distances each trial, whereas, the children in the specific practice group only threw the bean bag from a constant distance each trial. In the results of this study, there was an indication that the variable practice group improved their target throwing the most, therefore, suggesting that variability in practice can produce better recollection of schemata (Graydon & Griffin, 1996). Furthermore, in a similar study conducted by Wulf (1991), 88 children were assigned to throwing a rice bag at a target and were split into either a variable practice group, a specific practice group, or a control group who did not perform any practice trials before they were tested on their target throwing capabilities. The results of this study indicated that the variable practice group performed this task with the least amount of errors than any other group (Wulf, 1991). Therefore, further supporting the proposal of Graydon and Griffin (1996), that states increased use of variability in practice, increases the ability of a schema to adapt to new movement experiences. Consequently, according to Wulf (1991), the implications of variability in practice on healthy motor development in children, is that it enhances the performance of novel movements and it helps to enhance a child’s ability to select appropriate parameters for novel movements in order to prevent “sensory consequences” (p. 124). Therefore, the importance of implementing variability in practice is essential to understand because it is crucial in refining the motor development of young children by successfully improving their schemata.

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

Based off of research conducted by Graydon and Griffin (1996), in order for generalized movement patterns, stored in past schema, to translate to similar novel movement skills and improve motor performance in children, it is best to learn a class of movements rather than a specific movement at one time, which is where variability in practice comes into play. For example, when children are assigned variability in practice, such as, kicking a soccer ball at a net from a different distance each time, their understanding of how to position and use their body to produce a desired movement is improved. This is because, to compensate for the change in distance from the net, the children learn that they must position their body in a way that will allow them to add more force to the ball to get it all the way to the net. Ultimately, this contributes to an improvement in their overall body schema. Body schema is defined as “a concept of body awareness, which refers to gaining an internal awareness of where the body parts are in relation to each other” (Bredin, 2020, p. 3). Therefore, the opportunity variability in practice lends children to improving their body schema, leads to overall improvement in motor performance, since according to Bredin (2020), body schema greatly influences coordination in children. However, a rate limiter that underlies body schema is body concept (Bredin, 2020). Body concept is defined as “a concept of body awareness, which refers to one’s capability to identify specific parts of the body” (Bredin, 2020, p. 3). Therefore, if a child struggles with identifying specific parts of their body, it will be increasingly difficult for them to improve their body schema, consequently, this will negatively impact their motor performance (Bredin, 2020). However, according to Bredin (2020), “[t]o develop body schema, children should be provided the opportunity to move in different ways [so they can] solve the goals of [a] motor task by determining the body parts that are needed to accomplish the task” (p. 11). Thus, proving that variability in practice is beneficial to improving body schema and therefore motor performance in children. Nevertheless, if body concept is a concept a child simply can not grasp, perhaps due to a disability of some sort, this will continue to be a rate limiter, that variability in practice just can not improve, thus, preventing them from further developing their body schema. Furthermore, according to Wulf (1991), an issue surrounding variability in practice that can interfere with the development of motor performance in children is “that by increasing the number of consecutive repetitions of one task variation, variable-practice effects approach those of constant practice, as reflected in transfer performance” (p. 124). Therefore, suggesting that the effectiveness of variable practice on improving motor performance is diminished when there are too many repetitions of a certain task variation, since constant practice is known to be less effective in  improving the transfer of relevant motor skills in order to perform a similar task successfully (Wulf, 1991). This is because when constant repetitive practice is applied to a task, children are not required to actively engage in solving the goal of a motor task because the task becomes too predictable and does not require active learning (Wulf, 1991). This is proven by research from Wulf (1991), which states that non-repetitive variable practice uses various information “processing [which] leads to more elaboration and distinctiveness of the actions to be learned” (Wulf, 1991, p. 124). Therefore, it can be concluded from this statement that when constant repetitive practice is applied to a task, there is not enough distinctiveness in the actions being learned by the child to facilitate improvement in the transfer and retention of motor skills (Wulf, 1991). Thus, according to research conducted by Wulf (1991), in order for variability in practice to be effective in improving motor performance in children, it must be applied randomly to a task with little repetition, since random practice is known to be more effective for learning and transfer performance in children, which will help to improve overall motor development. All in all, in order for variability in practice to be effective in improving body schema and therefore motor development in children, it is important for early childhood educators, teachers and even grassroots coaches, to provide variable practice for motor tasks that are random and non-repetitive and adequate environments for these children to successfully gain a strong understanding of body concept.

Practical Applications

Variable practice (also known as varied practice or mixed practices) has myriad benefits for the memory retention and generalization of skills learned in many sport-based activities. By introducing diversity and intermixing modifications to tasks, children can learn to apply previously acquired skills across multiple scenarios and improve their performance of certain physical movements through varied practices. Focusing on a particular movement and varying the version the child is expected to perform introduces them to different methods and facilitates a wider scope of learning early on. This has cognitive benefits for ease of recall during sports-related tasks, where the child may have to adapt in play and think quickly on their feet to use a previously learned movement in an unfamiliar way. Physically, practicing a familiar movement in different ways will help prepare the child for participating in more complicated sports and activities as they develop.

Recommendation 1 - Graydon and Griffin’s (1996) Bean Bag Toss

An exercise dubbed Graydon and Griffin’s (1996) Bean Bag Toss pays homage to the researchers who used a similar paradigm to reach conclusions about the importance of varied practice tests on a child’s proficiency for learning acquisition, and ability to adjust their mental schemata involving body position. The varied distances allows the participant to develop their sense of proprioception, or their body parts in space. The bean bag toss exercise is simple and aimed for children of younger ages, in the 3-5 range, as the reflexes used are not complex at that age and it can be performed in a large group at a preschool. The use of different bean bag colours can also appeal and encourage enthusiastic participation.

A spacious area like a gym or field is best to set up this exercise. Participants will be spaced out evenly from each other and each be given bean bags, but can only throw 1 at a time per target. 3 targets can be marked at varied distances from the children’s position. The children will stay in one designated spot in front of their own trajectory of marked targets. The goal/purpose of spacing the targets at varied distances and having the children remain stationary for the duration of the exercise is so they learn to adjust their body’s position and changes in their throwing stance, to accommodate a distance that requires a different throw, grip, and force of motion. With their dominant hand, participants can throw their uniquely coloured/patterned bean bags at the marked targets. Each target will be aimed at separately (by measured distance) to keep track of the throws and give the children time to experience differences in the movements required to meet the target.

Although not absolutely necessary, this exercise can be done sequentially, with the children practicing their throwing motion beginning with the closest target and ending with the furthest.

For further randomization and variability, the target distances do not have to be arranged to be thrown at sequentially in distance order from closest to furthest. It is best for varied practices to intermix the target distances. This can be done by setting up the targets and labeling them with colours or numbers, and instructing the children to throw to varied distance targets in no particular order.

Recommendation 2 - Triple Basketball Drills

A drill to elevate skills in a more mature age group (ages 10 and up would be appropriate for the more complex rules and play) would be the introduction of 3 variations of basketball play. To better learn how to get the ball into the basket, the goal of basketball, the introduction and interlaying of 3 different drills will help the children learn how to manipulate the ball and their bodies to improve the accuracy of their throw. Practicing these drills in randomized distribution will also improve the transfer of their skills from aiming the shooting the ball towards the basket from practiced lengths to unpracticed lengths in actual gameplay. The purpose of the intermixed 3 drills is to introduce variability in position and timing of shooting the ball so the skills will be present for recall in team-style games where there is unpredictability and opponents. The children can do these 3 drills sequentially as they are all different movement experiences. To modify the interleaving of movement variations, try 1 of each drill and repeat sequentially instead of 3 repetitions before the next drill.

• The first drill for the children to apply their skills is the traditional layup. Instill the layup drill three times. The layup involves a one-handed throw against the backboard and the ball bounces into the basket.

• The second drill is a free throw. Instill the free throw drill 3 times. The child can throw the ball towards the basket from behind a designated free-throw line.

• The third drill is a jump shot, where the child attempts to shoot the ball into the basket in a single jump, holding the ball with either one shooting arm or both to make it more variable and less restricted. To modify this drill to be more accessible to height disparities in children, lower or raise the basket as needed.

References

Bredin, S. (2020, October 13). Module 5 sensory development [PDF file]. Canvas. https://canvas.ubc.ca/courses/60344/files/10305329?module_item_id=2471051

Graydon, J., & Griffin, M. (1996). Specificity and variability of practice with young children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83(1), 83-88. doi:10.2466/pms.1996.83.1.83

Toren, C. (2014). What is a schema? HAU Journal of Ethnographic Theory, 4(3), 401-409. doi:10.14318/hau4.3.027

Van Rossum, J. H. A. (1990). Schmidt’s schema theory: The empirical base of the variability of practice hypothesis: A crucial analysis. Human Movement Science, 9(3), 387-435. doi:10.1016/0167-

9457(90)90010-B

Wulf, G. (1991). The effect of type of practice on motor learning in children. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), 123-134. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1002/acp.2340050206

Yamada, R., & Itsukushima, Y. (2013). The effects of schema on recognition memories and subjective experiences for actions and objects. Japanese Psychological Research, 55(4),

366-377. doi:10.1111/jpr.12016