Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Target Games

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Force creation and stability at the time of projection

Defining the Concept and Its Importance

Target games are games that involve two stationary objects. Normally the participant is carrying one of the stationary objects in their hands which they dispatch in order to hit the other object which is positioned quite a distance away from them (Beashel et al., 1996). The object that is faraway is the target, sometimes it is painted in vibrant colours to help the participant see it. Quite often the target is motionless; however, in some cases, like clay pigeon shooting the target may be in motion. The objects participants dispatch are most commonly balls, arrows, darts or bullets. This type of game requires precision in aiming skills especially when the target is in motion disallowing the performer time to prepare (Beashel et al., 1996). For the most part, scoring in these games reflects the accuracy of the performer, however this can vary. For example, in golf the game is won by the player who takes the least amount of shots to get the ball from the tee to the hole, involving accuracy and aiming skills.

There are two types of target games as defined by Mitchell et al. (2013), the first is opposed; allowing the player to counterattack by using their object to hit the opponent’s target. Examples of opposed target games are billiards, horseshoe throwing, croquet, bocce, shuffleboard, and curling. The second type of target game is unopposed; where the sole interaction is between the player and their target. Examples include golf, darts, archery, shooting, and bowling. Less complex target games which are predominantly found in elementary physical education include ring and beanbag toss and rolling an object at a target. When engaging in target games, participants are not mentally overloaded or required to make decisions quickly because there are limited tactical options available. This allows children to refine their basic fundamental movement skills in a fun environment (Webb et al., 2006).

The mastery of fundamental movement skills (FMS) has been purported as contributing to a children’s physical, cognitive and social development and is thought to provide the foundation for an active lifestyle (Lubans et al. 2012). As explained by Eather et al. (2018), fundamental movement skill proficiency is positively associated with a range of health outcomes and is a predictor of lifelong participation in physical activities and sport. The refinement and development of fundamental movement skills leads to specialized movement sequences required for adequate participation in many organized and non-organized physical activities for children, adolescents and adults (Clark & Metcalfe, 2002). This is why in order to enhance fundamental movement skills in children there needs to be implementation of developmentally appropriate activities during physical education in schools (Logan et al., 2012). As stated by Sheppard (2007), target games are very important for the development of basic fundamental skills which includes locomotor skills, non-locomotor skills and manipulative skills. It is important for children to engage in target games in early childhood as this type of game enhances the development and refinement of basic fundamental skills which can transfer over to other areas of development and skills that are maintained into adulthood.

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

Target games are very important for the development of basic fundamental motor skills (Sheppard, 2007). Fundamental motor skill development is a critical aspect of early childhood, it involves gross and fine movement patterns; gross movement patterns involve large muscle groups and fundamental motor skills involve the activation of smaller muscle groups (Webster et al. 2019). Gross motor skills are generally separated into locomotor, manipulative, and non-locomotor skills (Webster et al. 2019).

While playing target games, children engage in the practice of sending an object away and tactical goals such as aim, accuracy, and target protection; all three develop a child’s fundamental motor skills (Wall & Murray, 1994). The basic fundamental motor skills involved in target games include locomotor skills, non-locomotor skills and manipulative skills (Mitchell et al., 2020).  As explained by Webster et al. (2019), locomotor skills involve navigating the body through space with specialized movement patterns; this can be seen as walking, stepping or running. While manipulative skills involve the manipulation of items either by projecting them, receiving them or by maintaining control over an object while moving (Webster et al. 2019; Bredin, 2020). Nonlocomotor skills are movements of the body with the goal of stabilization of the body’s center of gravity (stability movements) these include; twisting, pulling, bending, stretching, holding and releasing (Mitchell et al., 2020; Webster et al. 2019). An example of a target game that would involve all three fundamental motor skills is bowling, the child would have to walk up (locomotor) to the starting line then throw (manipulative) their ball aiming it at the pins, maintaining their balance (non-locomotor) to ensure accuracy of their throw

Target games have also been found to enhance cognitive skills by providing children with the time to increase their understanding and awareness of tactical decision-making skills and critical thinking skills (Mitchell et al., 2013). As the participant must decide before the skill is performed, they are thinking through then aiming at a target thereby developing their cognitive skills. It is important for children to engage in target games in early childhood as this type of game enhances the development and refinement of basic fundamental skills which can transfer over to other areas of development and skills which will maintained into adulthood.

An important contemporary issue that early childhood educators, teachers and grassroots coaches should be made aware of is the decline in physical activity levels of children. Recently, it has been discovered that preschool children spend around 80-85% of their time engaged in sedentary behaviour (Cardon & De Bourdeaudhuij, 2008). It has also been discovered that only 23% of preschoolers in the United States engaged in 120 minutes of daily physical activity (Tucker, 2008). The decline in physical activity levels influenced the amount of time children engage in target games. Most target games are not played outside of school therefore children are only exposed to target games in school and if target games are not being played very often, children miss the opportunity to reap the benefits of developing and refining their fundamental motor skills. The benefits of greater levels of fundamental motor skills in children include higher levels of physical activity, physical fitness, perceived motor competence in adolescence, and healthier weight (Barnett et al. 2009). The decrease in physical activity level of children in combination with not being exposed to target games can lead to decreases in development of fundamental motor skills. It was discovered by Webster et al. (2019), that higher amounts of screen-time were inversely related to fundamental motor skill competence. Also, children who engaged in more screen-time performed worse on the MABC-2 manual dexterity subscale. Manual dexterity is an intragyral skill for children to refine and develop because it is associated with fine motor patterns that are used for drawing and writing (Webster et al. 2019). Since target games develop and refine fundamental motor skills, with emphasis mainly on manipulative skills target games could theoretically show improvements in manual dexterity. Without the development of fundamental motor skills and the inherent practice target games provide, children could become even more less physically active and will not have shown the proper development of fundamental motor skills. Target skills are especially overlooked as a form of physical activity; however, studies have shown that playing games that involve fundamental motor skills at least three times a week is enough to improve fundamental motor skill proficiency, increase physical activity intensity and reduce sedentary behavior (Engel et al. 2018).

Practical Applications

Target Games include 2 stationary objects. They use one projectile object to hit the target. A good target game relies on precision, accuracy, and throwing power. These games are important for developing children's’ fundamental motor skills. Basic motor skills include locomotor, non-locomotor, and manipulative skills. The Long Toss and Target Defense rely on precision, accuracy, and throwing power, so they improve these attributes in children.  They also benefit cognitive and tactical decision-making skills. Two types of Target Games include unopposed, including only the individual and the target, and unopposed, in which two people compete to hit each others’ targets. Games that challenge childrens’ accuracy (like the ones described in this wiki) will improve fundamental motor skills. Modifications can be made to accommodate children with challenges. This section will include 2 such practical applications, games that challenge children in these areas.

GAME (1) Name: The target toss Overhand throw: (Unopposed Throwing Task)

Game 1: Long Toss Overhand Throw

Purpose: This is an important game because it encourages children to aim for targets that are limited in their surface area, thereby improving their accuracy in the overhand throw. By aiming for a distinct target and getting their beanbag into a confined space, their throwing accuracy will improve. The aim of this activity is to improve the accuracy of a child’s overhand throw.

This is an unopposed activity as identified by Mitchell et al. (2013), in which the sole interaction is between the player and the target, thereby giving children experience with unopposed gameplay.

Throw: Overhand, one hand at a time

Target Age: 3rd-5th grade

Apparatus/Equipment:

  • 6 Hoola Hoops to represent the targets*
  • 6 Flags with a corresponding number (#1-#6)
  • 10 Beanbags for each child
  • *Note: The instructor should have larger and smaller hoola-hoops available in case they need to adjust for modifications. The instructor should also have extra beanbags on hand in case of modifications.

Environmental Space/Set-Up: Suggested as an indoor activity. On a gym floor, so that hoola hoops are visible to children. This environment also makes the activity inclusive to children who use mobility aids. In the National Basketball Association (NBA), the court size is 94 by 50 feet (28.7 by 15.2 m), which should, ideally, be adhered to for the purposes of this game.

Explanation: Students are given 6 targets, and 10 beanbags.

Children have to go through all 6 targets. The targets are arranged in a circle.

  1. 5-6 children per target. The children stand on the outside of the circle, 8 feet away from their target, and all of them throw into the same target until each of them land one beanbag in that target.
  2. From there, they move clockwise to the next target, and repeat step 1 on all subsequent targets. This measure is used to ensure the children are equidistant from each of the targets as they move around the circle, and that they focus specifically on one target at a time. For instance, because the children begin standing outside of the circle and throwing their beanbags in, they would not be expected to throw to target 2. Therefore, they have to move before attempting to throw into the next target.
  3. Once the children have thrown through the 5 targets, they then have to throw to a final target in the center of the room. The less bean bags used, the more accurate the throwing of the child. Children are trying to land a beanbag in each of the 6 targets, and allow the entire group to land a beanbag in the target before moving on to the next one.

Modifications

(A) Modifications for individuals with higher throwing accuracy for the overhand throw:

  1. Increase the 8-foot distance to challenge accuracy and make the task harder for the cohort.
  2. Give the higher-accuracy throwers a smaller target; this will challenge the limits of their accuracy by shrinking the available surface area

Both of these solutions can be co-implemented to challenge the child’s throwing accuracy. In this situation, a child would be standing more than 8 feet away from the target, while also throwing into a smaller target. This implementation of modifications (1) and (2) can be combined to increase the net challenge in throwing accuracy. This combination, as with the individual modifications, both challenge the throwing accuracy of the overhand throw.

Note: To promote inclusivity among the groups, the instructor should place the smaller hoola-hoop in the larger one, so the child with more throwing accuracy can aim for that one.

(B) Modifications for individuals with lower accuracy (A child can co-implement any of these modifications at the same time):

  1. Continue providing the child with more beanbags until they have landed one beanbag in all 6 of the targets. This gives them more opportunities to practice throwing with accuracy, and will enhance the skill, no matter what throw variation they are using. Physical educators should try to encourage children to implement the overhand throw as much as possible.
  2. Decrease the 8-foot distance away from each of the targets and make the task easier for the children by reducing the required throwing distance
  3. Children acquire the underhand throw earlier than the overhand throw. Therefore, the underhand throw is a developmentally-appropriate regression for children who cannot perform the overhand throw (Graham & Parker, 2013).
  • Rationale for this modification: The period from Kindergarten to 2nd Grade is the expected age range during which children should be able throw underhand (Graham & Parker, 2013).This variation still provides a targeted developmental benefit of improving throwing accuracy, because the overhand throw builds on the underhand throw. Therefore, children are progressing through the throwing proficiency hierarchy going from the underhand throw to the overhand throw.
  1. Have the children throw two handed instead of one handed, as this will reduce force required. It will also make it significantly easier for them to grip the ball (Burton, Greer, & Wiese-Bjornstal, 1993). This still provides the targeted developmental benefit of improving throwing accuracy, because the child will hopefully be able to progress to throwing underhand, and then overhand.

Universal Modifications (Higher/Lower Accuracy can benefit from these)

  • If a child needs more practice with throwing accuracy, a larger hoola-hoop can be provided. But if a child has higher throwing accuracy, a smaller hoola-hoop can be provided.
  • Coach can scale their level of feedback to each child’s level of throwing accuracy. For instance, a child with lower throwing accuracy is going to rely on different cues and different types of feedback to accomplish the task than a child with higher throwing accuracy.
  • Have them repeat the circuit multiple times before reaching the goal (more practice)

GAME (2) Name: Target Defense (Opposed Game) Throwing for distance and accuracy

Game 2: Target Defense Game

Purpose: This is an opposed activity as identified by Mitchell et al. (2013), where participants compete and counterattack to score on each other’s targets. This is an important technique because it encourages children to aim for targets that are farther away, thereby improving their accuracy. This gives children experience with opposed gameplay. The distance from the target is important because a greater distance will challenge a child’s accuracy more. This game is meant to challenge the set of skills developed in Game 1, because adding an element of competition will increase the degree of difficulty of throwing accuracy.

Target Age: Grades 3-5

Equipment:

Goals: 2 Goals/Pair, each goal is ~3 feet tall

5 balls per child, should be foam balls, and 5-6 inches in diameter. Balls should be soft but aerodynamic. This way, they do not injure other children upon collision, but also fly into the goal at a reasonable speed.

Environmental Space/Set-Up:

The setting should be indoors and in a gym, so the goals and balls can be easily identified by the children. Ideally, the gym is large enough for multiple rounds of the game to be going at once, so it can be more inclusive. Ideally the setting should be a large basketball court. In the National Basketball Association (NBA), the court size is 94 by 50 feet (28.7 by 15.2 m), which should be adhered to for the purposes of this game. This environment is also accommodating to children who may require mobility aids, or who may have any physical challenges. The coach should position kids on the outer boundary to ensure they are lined up properly across from each other.

Instructions:

Children are in front of a large goal (each have their own). The goals are set opposite each other on the field. Children pair off against another child of similar ability, to promote equity in the competition.  Each child guards their own goal, which is a pop-up soccer goal, about 3 feet tall.  They must stand outside the goal. Attempt to match children of similar ages, height, weight, and skill to level the playing field. The children face each other head-on with 5 meters in between them. Each child is given 5 balls to try and score on their opponents’ goal, which they throw overhand. The students have 2 minutes to attempt to score on each other’s goals. At the end of the 2 minutes, the child with the highest number of goals wins.

The reason for including 5 balls is to establish a success metric for scoring capabilities in children. If a child is unable to make a goal with any of the 5 balls, then they are allowed to run and retrieve them. Children will be encouraged to throw overhand, as this is appropriate to developmental expectations for this age group. Children who are unable to do so can throw underhand, to make the task easier for them.

If a child cannot make a goal with any of the 5 balls, they can run 5 meters (or roll, if they are in a wheelchair) to retrieve them. Children will be encouraged to run along the right side of the goal, to prevent collisions. Additionally, the physical educator/coach in charge should ensure that the goals and children are spaced out enough to avoid collisions with other groups who are playing at the same time.

Modifications:

  1. Distance between goals and players can be increased or decreased depending on throwing accuracy and power.
  2. Decreasing the distance will make the task easier (for players with lower accuracy and throwing power), while increasing the distance will make it harder (for players with higher accuracy and throwing power).
  3. The time limit can be increased or decreased depending on factors (A) and (B). An increased time limit will make the task easier (for players with lower accuracy and throwing power), and a decreased time limit will make the task harder (for players with higher accuracy and throwing power).
  4. In children who are still working towards proficiency in this skill, they may be given 2-3 more balls to encourage greater practice of this skill. However, this will depend on the needs of the individual, so they may need more balls than this.
  5. If giving more balls to the children, try to ensure that both players are given the same number of balls, so the standard rules can be adhered to. If the instructors have matched children of similar ability level, this will probably not be an issue.
  6. If a child lacks sufficient accuracy and throwing power to play with the other children, one of the physical educators/coaches can be their partner for the duration of the game. If a child lacks the accuracy or throwing ability to compete with the other children, they can play against the coach, who can play at a level commensurate with the child’s abilities. The coach can assist with retrieving the balls if a child has any mobility impairments that would prevent them from accomplishing this task.
  7. If necessary, coaches and physical educators may also include task-relevant cues, such as letting the child know when the ball is headed their way, assisting their attention to detail in the task. Some of these cues include Side-to-Target, Arm Way Back, Step with Opposite Foot, and Follow Through (Graham & Parker, 2013). It is useful for the coach to demonstrate these skills at the beginning of the game to help children achieve a greater level of mastery over the movement.
  8. NOTE: This game includes and encourages physical, tactical competition. Physical educators should only introduce competition after the children have learned the skills required to a satisfactory level. If physical educators introduce this competitive element too early for these children, they may struggle to integrate these tasks into a competitive format.

Summary

Target games include two stationary objects: an object that is manipulated by a person and the other the target. Objects that are commonly manipulated by a person are balls, arrows, darts, or bullets. Children playing target games develop their fundamental motor skills such as locomotor, non-locomotor, and manipulative skills. Moreover, it has been found to enhance children’s cognitive skills by increasing their decision-making and critical thinking skills. Target games like long toss overhand throws or target defense games can help children’s development. However, some contemporary issues, such as sedentary behaviours in children, have resulted in a decline in physical activity.

References

Barnett, l. M., Van Beurden, E., Morgan, P. J., Brooks, L. O., & Beard, J. R. (2009). Childhood motor skill proficiency as a predictor of adolescent physical activity. J Adolesc Health, 44, 252-259.

Beashel, P., Taylor, J., & Alderson, J., (1996). Advanced studies in physical education and sport. Nelson, 1-433.

Bredin, S., 2020, Module 4: Movement Experiences for Young Children, School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia).

Burton, A. W., Greer, N. L., & Wiese-Bjornstal, D. M. (1993). Variations in grasping and throwing patterns as a function of ball size. Pediatric Exercise Science, 5(1), 25-41.

https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/pes/5/1/article-p25.xml

Cardon, G. M. & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. M. (2008). Are preschool children active enough? Objectively measured physical activity levels. Res Q Exercise Sport, 79, 326-332.

Clark, J.E. & Metcalfe, J. S. (2002). The mountain of motor development. National Association of Sport & Physical Education, 2, 90-163.

Eather, N., Bull, A., Young, M. D., Barnes, A. T., Pollock, E. R., Morgan, P. J. (2018). Fundamantal movement skills: where do girls fall short? A novel investigation of object control skill execution in primary-school aged girls. Preventative Medicine Reports, 11(1), 191-195.

Engel, A. C., Broderick, C. R., Van Doorn, N., Hardy, L. L., & Parmenter, B. J. (2018). Exploring the relationship between fundamental motor skill interventions and physical activity levels in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine (Auckland), 48(8), 1845-1857.

Graham, G., & Parker, M. (2013). Children moving. McGraw-Hill.

Logan, S., Robinson, L., &v Wilson, A. (2012). Getting the fundamentals of movement: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of motor skill interventions in children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 38(3), 305-315.

Lubans, R. D., Morgan, J. P., Cliff, P. D., Barnett, M. L., & Okely, D. A. (2012). Fundamental movement skills in children and adolescents. Sports Medicine, 40, 1019-1035.

Mitchell, A. S., Oslin, L. J., & Griffin, L. L., (2013). Teaching sport concepts and skills: a tactical games approach for ages 7-18. Human Kinetics, 3, 1-200.

Mitchell, A.S., Oslin, L.J., & Griffin, L. L., (2020). Teaching sport concepts and skills: a tactical games approach. Human Kinetics Publisher, 4, 1-262.

Sheppard, J. (2007). Ready, aim, target games. Physical & Health Education Journal, 73(3),34.

Tucker, P. (2008). The physical activity levels of preschool-aged children: a systematic review. Early Child Res Q, 23, 547-558.

Wall, J. & Murray, N. (1994). Children and movement. Dubuque, IO: WMC Brown Publishers.

Webb, I. P., Pearson, J. P., & Forrest, G. (2006). Teaching games for understanding (TGFU) in primary and secondary physical education. University of Wollongong, 1-12.

Webster, E. K., Martin, C. K., & Staiano, A. E. (2019). Fundamental motor skills, screen-time, and physical activity in preschoolers. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 8(2), 114-121.

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