Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Standing On One Foot
Defining the Concept and Its Importance
Standing on one foot is a type of static postural stability which can be defined as one’s ability to maintain an upright posture and to keep the centre of gravity (COG) within the limits of the base of support (the one foot) (Kirshenbaum et al., 2001; Lee & Lin, 2007). An upright single-leg stance is particularly challenging for children as the entire body mass is placed on one leg and requires keeping the centre of body mass (COM) within a small area of support. To clarify, COG only denotes the centre of the body in the vertical direction while COM accounts for all directions, likewise the center of pressure (COP) is the location where the individual pressures exerted on a surface are concentrated. In other words, depending on how an individual is standing (ex. on their heels, or on one foot), the pressure applied to the ground changes (COP) and in turn changes the distribution of their mass in space (COM) (Kirshenbaum et al., 2001).
Independent bipedal stance is considered a major motor milestone, however postural control, balance control, and stability, continues to improve drastically over the first 10 years of life (Rival, Ceyte, & Olivier, 2005). Improvement of postural control in children is characterized by a decrease in magnitude of COP displacements and frequency of postural sway; meaning as children age, they become more confidently stable on their feet (Kirshenbaum et al., 2001; Rival et al., 2005).
Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations
The postural control involved in standing on one foot is affiliated with one’s ability to correctly perceive their environment through an integration of visual, proprioceptive, vestibular, and somatosensory inputs at the level of the central nervous system (CNS) (Lee & Lin, 2007; Rival et al., 2005). These inputs then enable appropriate musculoskeletal responses for the individual to maintain equilibrium, or balance, which is characteristic of a feedback-based control system. According to Rival et al. (2005), visual information is the most crucial source of feedback for postural stability as it allows for continuous adjustment. The ability to interpret and use those visual cues is associated with an increase in accuracy and consistency in eye movements, which is acquired with age (Hatzitaki, Zlsi, Kollias, & Kioumourtzoglou, 2002). At the age of around 6, a child is using an open-loop control system (or non-feedback system) so they are making fast and large corrections to their posture. At around age 8, changes can be seen in the strategy used to manipulate posture with an integration of open-loop and closed-loop modes of control. By age 10, children are predominantly using a closed-loop system (errors are detected and corrected), much like adults, although not yet as proficient (Hatzitaki et al., 2002; Rival et al., 2005). While research has shown that postural control improves linearly over time, age is not the only factor that determines one’s postural stability (Figura, Cama, Capranica, Guidetti, & Pulejo, 1991; Lee & Lin, 2007). Lee & Lin (2007) studied the influence of somatotype (physique characteristics) and gender on single-leg upright standing postural stability and found that body differences do in fact affect postural control. It was found that endomorphs (more relative fatness of the body) had a larger radius of COP, meaning they were shifting and less stable on their balancing foot. Ectomorphs who had a small BMI (body mass index) value and a greater height-to-weight ratio (HWR), which increases the height of the COM, surprisingly did not have more postural instability than the others. Lastly, the mesomorphs (more relative musculature of the body) outperformed the other two groups in their postural stability which may be due to lower body height and a higher proportion of musculature in the body, especially in the legs, that aid with postural control and joint stability (Lee & Lin, 2007). Males also performed their one-leg stances with more difficulty than females, which may be explained by males’ higher BMI compared to females (Lee & Lin, 2007). Furthermore, general health habits and exercise can influence the timing of biological maturation and body type, which can affect one’s physical performance in sports and development of postural control.
Practical Applications
The first game is called Musical Hoops. The purpose of this game is to develop strength and balance. This game only requires a space to play, such as a gymnasium, a speaker for music, as many hoops as there are participants, and is for children around age 4 to 12 (Feith, 2017). The game involves the children moving around, without touching the hoops, while the instructor plays music. The instructor will proceed to randomly stop the music, resulting in the children running into an empty hoop and freezing in different balanced positions that involve standing on one foot. After each round, the instructor removes a hoop. The way to win the game is be able to find an empty hoop and stay balanced (Feith, 2017). A modification that can be made is to make the kids skip instead of run towards the hoops. Another modification that can be made is to start with less hoops and have two participants try to balance together in one hoop (Feith, 2017). Musical Hoops uses cues from the environment, such as, visual (knowing where the hoops are), vestibular (listening to the music stop), and proprioceptive (balancing in within a small space with another participant).
The second game to help with balance in Hopscotch. The purpose of this game is to develop not only balance, but also coordination, cognitive functions, and strengthen muscles (Whittier, 2020). The target age for this game is around age 4 to 10. This game requires a space to play, such as a cement ground and chalk. The children are supposed to draw out a series of random ordered squares, such as one square then two squares. To play this game, the children must hop inside the squares on one foot if there is only one square, or two feet if there are two squares, without stopping, touching the lines, or losing balance. It is also important to go through the squares at a faster pace each time. One modification to this game would be to play inside a gymnasium using floor pads or hula hoops. Another modification would be to adjust the size of the squares, for example, making the squares smaller to make it more challenging. This game forces a child to hop onto one foot, balance on one foot, and hop to the next set of squares with only one foot. The sensory cues in this game include, visual (must pay attention to how many squares there are) and proprioception (staying inside the lines while going through at a fast pace). The strength developed from this game will help children with being able to balance on one foot.
Summary
Standing on one foot is static postural stability. It involves standing in an upright posture, centre of gravity, centre of body mass and base of support. This task is often more challenging for children, they take their first ten years to become more stable and when they achieve independent bipedal stance it is a major milestone. Postural control is related to the ability to perceive the environment. The musculoskeletal system uses a feedback control system to maintain equilibrium. Visual information is an important source for feedback for postural stability. Examples of games for practicing stability are musical hoops and hopscotch.
References
Feith, J. (2017, April 14). Musical hoops - Standards-based PE game for your gym. Retrieved from https://thephysicaleducator.com/game/musical-hoops/
Figura, F., Cama, G., Capranica, L., Guidetti, L., & Pulejo, C. (1991). Assessment of static balance in children. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 31(2), 235-242. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Laura_Guidetti/publication/21401521_Asessment_of_static_balance_in_children/links/0c96051e94073b67d4000000/Asessment-of-static-balance-in-children.pdf
Hatzitaki, V., Zlsi, V., Kollias, I., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2002). Perceptual-motor contributions to static and dynamic balance control in children. Journal of Motor Behavior, 34(2), 161-170. doi: 10.1080/00222890209601938
Kirshenbaum, N., Riach, C. L., & Starkes, J. L. (2001). Non-linear development of postural control and strategy use in young children: A longitudinal study. Experimental Brain Research, 140(4), 420-431. doi: 10.1007/s002210100835
Lee, A. J. Y., & Lin, W. (2007). The influence of gender and somatotype on single-leg upright standing postural stability in children. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 23, 173-179. doi: 10.1123/jab.23.3.173
Rival, C., Ceyte, H., & Olivier, I. (2005). Developmental changes of static standing balance in children. Neuroscience Letters, 376(2), 133-136. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.11.042
Whittier, K. (2020, April 13). Why playing hopscotch is important. Retrieved from https://playandgrow.com/playing-hopscotch-important/