Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Speed

Defining the Concept and Its Importance

In the simplest terms, speed refers to the rate at which a person moves (Oliver et al., 2013). Speed can be further placed into four categories: latent chain reaction time, movement frequency, single speed movement, and sprint speed (Jakovljević et al., 2013). Although all categories of speed develop throughout childhood, many studies on speed focus on sprint speed, as it pertains to both individual and team sports (Oliver et al., 2020). Furthermore, studies often assess speed through sprint times of short distances of fifty metres or less. Sprint speed refers to “the ability of the human musculoskeletal system to support the linear body displacement until the achievement of maximum speed” (Papaiakovou, 2009, p.1). For over-ground sports, speed is a function of stride frequency and stride length (Jakovljević et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2020).

Studies show that a significant amount of speed development occurs during the prepubescent years, which then continues at a slower rate in adolescence (Colyer, 2020; Gasser, 2010; Nagahara et al., 2019). Speed development is a non-linear process, and vast improvements in speed during early childhood are a function of both neural development and increases in limb length and musculature (Oliver et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2020). In addition to physiological development, children often partake in activities that involve short-bursts of movement which contributes to speed development (Papaiakovou, 2009). Changes that occur in early childhood primarily cause increases in stride length, however children can be trained to increase stride frequency (Oliver et al., 2013).

Facilitating speed development in early childhood years is particularly important for continued engagement in sport and physical activity in later years. Many studies have identified speed as a key component in successful sport performance in child, adolescent and adult athletes (Coyer et al., 2020; Nagahara, et al., 2019; Oliver et al., 2020; Radnor et al., 2018). This is due to speed being a building block to developing more complex skill sets (Oliver et al., 2013). Speed is a performance related fitness skill that is transferable to both over-ground sports, and water sports. Furthermore, speed development in childhood creates opportunities for participation in non-organized and organized sport, and creates opportunities to advance to competitive sport in adulthood (Lubans, 2010; Oliver, et al., 2020).

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

Speed enables children to have the confidence and movement proficiency to get involved in multiple sports with their peers. The development of speed also allows a child to gain an understanding of basic movement concepts, and basic mechanical principles related to speed. Children learn to understand the concepts of force creation. For example, since acceleration is a component of speed, children learn to accelerate and modify speed during locomotor movements (Oliver et al., 2020). Speed is also used in manipulative movements, where children learn to create forces at various speeds, with specific segments of the body, as when throwing a ball, or kicking an object (Bredin, 2020b).

During early childhood there is a ‘window of opportunity’ where developments in movement skills can be maximized (Bredin, 2020b). Although the research relating the ‘window of opportunity’ to speed development is still uncertain, it is theorized that starting speed training in early childhood will provide a greater chance for the child to achieve their full potential in adulthood (Oliver et al., 2013). This is supported by studies that show considerable increases in speed between the ages of five to seven, and five to ten (Colyer, 2020; Gasser, 2010; Nagahara et al., 2019).

Physical inactivity is one growing concern that affects a child’s speed development. Trends in research illustrate that children are adopting sedentary lifestyles starting in very early childhood, and physical inactivity is continuing to decline as the child ages (Hesketh, 2017). One factor that contributes to children being sedentary is increases in screen time. When children are sedentary they are not able to become competent in movement skills, such as speed, which has negative effects on both participation in sport as a child, and long-term engagement in physical activity.

Educators play an important role in creating spaces for children to take part in active play, as well as facilitating activities that will promote gross motor skill development. For children engaging in specialized training programs, coaches should be aware that increases and decreases in speed throughout childhood can be related to many variables, such as maturation, the development of new skills, and the training program, or all three. For example, speed often briefly decreased with growth as the child learns to coordinate increases in limb length (Oliver et al. 2013). Speed development programs should be specific to the child’s developmental level. In early childhood, speed development programs should incorporate free sprinting and strength specific activities, but overall, they should prioritize developing fundamental movement skills. In later childhood, speed development programs can incorporate more speed specific training drills, coordination drills, in addition to fundamental movement skills activities (Oliver et al., 2013).

Practical Applications

Game #1: Sharks and Minnows

Sharks and Minnows Set up

Purpose statement:

Sharks and Minnows allows children to develop their sprint speed in a fun and enjoyable game. The short bursts of movements in the game contribute to their speed development (Papaiakovou, 2009) and aid in the development of their stride length and stride frequency (Oliver, 2013). Children will also learn about body movement concepts such as their directions and pathways of movement since the open space allows them to run in all directions (Bredin, 2020b). They may also develop concepts about the basic mechanical principles of movement such as force production, inertia and acceleration (Bredin, 2020b). Since children will be running next to each other, they will learn about relationship awareness and their relationships to others (Bredin, 2020b). This game will not only allow children to engage in physical, locomotor and possibly outdoor play but will also allow them to engage in imaginative and social play (Bredin, 2020a).

Target age: This game is recommended for children between the ages of 5-7. This game is recommended for early school-age children because it promotes the fundamental concepts of speed while letting children engage in imaginative play. The game can be modified for older children, but older children won’t be developing as many skills with this game since they have already acquired the basic skills of speed and running.

Apparatus/equipment needed and environment space/set up:

Apparatus and equipment: There is no equipment or apparatus needed for this game.

Environment space/set-up: A large space is required and a designated rectangle should be outlined with visible markings.

Instructions:

One player is identified to be the shark and will stand in the middle of the rectangle
The other players will be minnows and will line up behind the starting line (see diagram)
Before starting, it is important to remind players to be aware of their surroundings and be careful to not collide with others. Be sure to emphasize the importance of not using too much force when tagging playing to reduce the risk of injury.
When all of the minnows are behind the marked line, the shark will say “Shark attack!”
With the shark’s cue, all of the minnows must run as fast as they can to the other end of the rectangle without being tagged.
If a minnow is tagged, they now become a shark and try to tag other minnows as they run across
The game is over when there is only one minnow left, they are the winner!

Modifications:

For children on the younger side of the target age, you could modify the game by starting with multiple sharks.
Adding obstacles in the rectangle would increase the difficulty of the game as children would have to avoid them to get to the other side.
The ‘Octopus’ game is very similar and could be used as a modification. The concept of the game is the same, but when children are tagged, they become seaweed and must remain on the spot where they were tagged. This results in the minnows having to avoid the shark and the octopi.

Game #2: Tic Tac Toe Relay

Tic Tac Toe Relay

Purpose statement:

The Tic Tac Toe Relay allows children to develop their speed in a slightly more competitive game. This game focuses on the development of sprint speed as well as changes in directions and agility which increase the overall fitness of children (Walker et al., 2011). Children must also work as a team and cooperate to succeed in this game. They are engaging in physical and locomotor play as well as cooperative and social play (Bredin, 2020a). This game will promote speed through short bursts of running where children will have to focus on their acceleration speed and will have a short break in between bursts, depending on the size of each team (Coetzee, 2016).

Target age: The recommended age for this game is 7-10 years old. This game requires both physical and strategic skills which is why it is targeted towards older school-age children. This game also requires children to participate in cooperative play, which typically emerges around the age of 5 (Bredin, 2020a), making it more complex.

Apparatus/equipment needed and environment space/set up:

Apparatus and equipment: This game requires 9 hula-hoops, 6 small bean bags of two colours (3 of each colour) and two cones.

Environment space/set-up: A large gymnasium or field is required for this game. The 9 hula-hoops are placed in a 3x3 arrangement at one end of the gymnasium/field. The two cones must be placed 8 metres away from the hula-hoop arrangement to mark the starting line. The players must be separated into two teams and each team is assigned a colour with the corresponding beans bags.

Instructions:

Each team lines up in a column behind their starting mark.
The objective of the game is to make a line of 3 bean bags in the hula-hoop arrangement (like in Tic Tac Toe). The lines can be horizontal, vertical or diagonal. There can only be one bean bag in each hula-hoop at a time.
After a countdown, the first player of each team must run to the hula-hoop arrangement and place their bean bag in a hula-hoop to mark the spot. They then run back and relay the next player on their team.
The first three players will simply run and add their bean bag to a hula-hoop.
When the teams run out of bean bags, they must now run to the hula-hoop arrangement and change the position of a bean bag in hopes to make a line. They can change the position of a bean bag of their team or their opposing team.
This relay carries on until one team succeeds in completing a line of three bean bags.

Modifications:

To increase speed development, the hula-hoop arrangement can be placed farther away from the starting line (ex: 10 or 12 metres)
To increase the difficulty of the Tic Tac Toe, the arrangement of the hula-hoops can change from a 3x3 arrangement to a 4x4 arrangement (this would require 16 hula-hoops and 8 bean bags).
When children run out of bean bags, the rules can be modified to only allow them to add or remove a bean bag. This would mean that if they want to remove a bean bag, they must run to the hula-hoop arrangement, pick it up and run back to their starting line to pass it to the next player (instead of being able to switch the spots directly in the original game). This would increase the amount of running the children are doing and develop their stamina and speed.

Summary

Speed can be simply defined as the rate at which a person moves. A large amount of speed development occurs during the prepubescent years (due to neural and physical development) and progresses at a slower rate during adolescence. Speed has been recognized as a key identifier for a child’s performance in sport. Speed development can be seen as a building block for both basic and complex movement concepts. One contemporary issue is that children are participating in less physical activity due to increases in screen time. Practical applications involving games can be used to improve the development of children’s speed.

References

Bredin, S. (2020a, September, 15). Module 1: Play [Lecture notes]. Canvas.

Bredin, S. (2020b, October, 6). Module 4: Developing fundamental movements [Lecture notes]. Canvas.

Coetzee, D. (2016). Strength, running speed, agility and balance profiles of 9-to 10-year-old learners: NW-child study. South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 38(1), 13-30. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301656993_Strength_running_speed_agility_and_balance_profiles_of_9-to_10-year-old_learners_Nw-child_study/citation/download

Colyer, S. L., Nagahara, R., Takai, Y., & Salo, A. I. T. (2020). The effect of biological maturity status on ground reaction force production during sprinting. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 30(8), 1387-1397. doi:10.1111/sms.13680

Gasser, T., Rousson, V., Claflisch, J., & Jenni, O. G. (2010). Development of motor speed and associated movements from 5-18 years. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03391.x

Hesketh, K. R., Lakshman, R., & van Sluijs, E. (2017). Barriers and facilitators to young children's physical activity and sedentary behaviour: a systematic review and synthesis of qualitative literature. Obesity reviews: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 18(9), 987–1017. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12562

Jakovljević, V., Ljubojevic, A., Karalic, T., Gerdijan, N., Vukic, Z., & Pasic, G. (2013). Sprinting speed of prepubertal boys and girls. Exercise and Quality of Life, 5(2), 20-27. Retrieved from http://eqoljournal.com/wp-content/eq/EQOL5_2/eq5_2.html

Lubans, D. R., Morgan, P. J., Cliff, D. P., Barnett, L. M., & Okely, A. D. (2010). Fundamental movement skills in children and adolescents: Review of associated health benefits. Sports Medicine, 40(12), 1019-1035. doi:10.2165/11536850-000000000-00000

Nagahara, R., Haramura, M., Takai, Y., Oliver, J. L., Wichitaksorn, N., Sommerfield, L. M., & Cronin, J. B. (2019). Age‐related differences in kinematics and kinetics of sprinting in young female. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 29(6), 800-807. doi:10.1111/sms.13397

Oliver, J., Lloyd, R. S., & Rumpf, M.C. (2013). Developing speed throughout childhood and adolescence: The rold of growth, maturation and training. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 35(3), 42-48. doi: 10.1519/SSC.0b013e3182919d32

Oliver, J.L., Cahill, M., & Uthoff, A. (2020). Speed training for young athletes. Strength and conditioning for young athletes (2^nd ed., pp. 207-227). Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9781351115346-10

Papaiakovou, G., Giannakos, A., Michailidis, C., Patikas, D., Bassa, E., Kalopisis, V., . . . Kotzamanidis, C. (2009). The effect of chronological age and gender on the development of sprint performance during childhood and puberty. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2568-2573. doi:10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181c0d8ec

Radnor, J. M., Oliver, J. L., Waugh, C. M., Myer, G. D., Moore, I. S., & Lloyd, R. S. (2018). The influence of growth and maturation on stretch-shortening cycle function in youth. Sports Medicine (Auckland), 48(1), 57-71. doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0785-0

Walker T. B., Lennemann, L. M., Harrison, C. R., Klein, R., & Doczy, E. J. (2011). The influence of agility training on physiological and cognitive performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25, 104-105. doi: 10.1097/01.JSC.0000395745.95921.2f