Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Skipping

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Defining the Concept and Its Importance

As children develop, they accumulate a variety of basic movement skills that help them traverse and manipulate their environment. One category of these movement skills is locomotor skills. As defined by Bredin (2020), locomotor skills are, “basic motor skills necessary for transporting the body from one space to another”. A list of locomotor skills would include but not be limited to; running, walking, jumping, climbing, rolling and skipping.

According to the Active For Life (n.d.) foundation, skipping is a locomotor skill that involves the individual performing a step and hop on one foot followed by a step and hop on the other foot in rhythmic succession, in a forward motion and is considered more complex than jumping or hopping. To perform such a task would require the development of enough muscular strength to propel the body forward, an understanding of the rhythm of the motion to maintain fluidity while skipping as well as the balance and coordination necessary to prevent the individual from falling over.

The development of locomotor skills such as skipping as well as the development of the coordination, rhythm, muscular strength and balance that comes with performing the movement is essential to the development of a child. From a physical standpoint, these motor skills have been identified to be picked up by a child at specific critical periods or “windows or opportunity” where their brains are in the best state to learn a particular skill which gets harder as they grow older (Chugani, 1998).

Derri et al. (2001) argues that if a child fails to develop a skill like skipping during their formative years in preschool and elementary, they will most likely fail to perform that motor skill during later childhood and adolescence. This failure and subsequent feelings of embarrassment and fear of being ridiculed can lead to psychological ramifications, such as a difficulty in learning new skills later on in life.

Skipping can be considered as a form of exercise which can be incorporated into organized physical activity programmes for children (Derri et al., 2001). Research over recent years has also begun to show a strong relation between physical activity and the cognitive development of children, specifically executive functioning (Tomporowski et al., 2011) highlighting yet another way in which the process of developing these locomotor skills can help in child development.

The strong relationship between the development of fundamental locomotor skills such as skipping, and the physical, psychological and cognitive domains of development outlined above, emphasizes why is it of paramount importance to early childhood educators to help children develop these locomotor skills. Not only is the ability to perform these locomotor skills beneficial but so is the process of developing them.

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

As discussed earlier, the development of skipping and other locomotor skills has a tremendous impact on the development of a child over the psychological, physical and cognitive domains of development and according to Kiddo (2019), children “should have mastered all aspects of the skip by the end of Year 3”, which is equivalent to being around 8 years old.

Early childhood educators should be aware of what a developed skipping pattern looks like. Kiddo (2019) suggests that there should be a; (1) rhythmic step and hop pattern (2) ball of the foot landing position (3) bend in the support knee while pushing off (4) stable head and trunk with eyes forward and (5) relaxed swing in the arms opposite to the legs. It is common to see errors such as having a lack of rhythm as well as coordination, landing flat footed and having stiff legs upon landing, the last two of which can be detrimental down the line if not rectified.

Research by Prapavessis and McNair (1999) explains the significance of good shock absorption technique in injury prevention during jumping activities. If a child doesn’t learn effective shock absorption techniques, in this case, bending their knees while landing and landing on the ball of their feet, their likelihood of injury increases substantially should they ever participate in a jumping activity, which stands to limit a child’s potential to participate in activities such as basketball, dancing or cheerleading.

Not only does an inability to use the skills necessary to skip increase the likelihood of injury in sport but it may also affect overall sport and activity performance. Graham (1991) found that learning these fundamental skills “provide the building blocks for eventual success in sports and activities enjoyed in adolescent and adult years” (p. 353). Two other points mentioned in the research paper were that these fundamental motor skills are harder to teach older teenagers and adults not only due to a decrease in neuroplasticity, but also because children simply tend to find learning these skills more enjoyable and interesting and also that “these skills, once learned, are retained for a life-time” (Graham, 1991, p. 353), showcasing the lifelong influence of and critical time period to develop proficient performance of the skipping locomotor skill.

Khangholi et al. (2014) mention that there are still some educational systems that follow a philosophy which suggests that, “movement development has its main root in genetics, while environment plays a minor role in it” (Khangholi et al., 2014, p. 4395). This belief system can negatively impact children who are showing delays in developing skipping movement patterns. If an early childhood educator was to believe in this philosophy, there is a likelihood that they will not assist a child who needs structured help to develop their skipping locomotor skill as they believe that environmental factors (the coaches/educators), have minimal impact on the locomotor skill and it is the child’s genetics at fault.

Research by Graf et al. (2004) also supports the argument that children who are experiencing difficulty in movement should receive support but for the purpose of preventing the consequences of physical inactivity and obesity. There is undeniable evidence that childhood obesity has had a dramatic increase, with the Government of Canada (2019) suggesting that it has tripled in the past 3 decades. Graf et al.’s (2004) research found a correlation between obesity and poor motor development in children, solidifying it’s status as a contemporary issue that childhood educators should be aware of.

Perhaps the most contemporary issue that the world is facing currently is the Covid-19 pandemic. With the current number of confirmed cases worldwide being over 39,940,000 (World Health Organization, 2020), the ability for children to go outdoors and be physically active has dramatically decreased. In accordance with Graf et al.’s (2004) research, this impacts a child’s ability to develop strong locomotor skills as physical inactivity is correlated with poor motor development and the number of opportunities for children to actually perform specific motor skills such as skipping, which may require more open space not typically found indoors, has been greatly reduced.

The work of the childhood educator is now more important than ever as the contemporary issues that we face perpetuate a cycle where, the increased spread of Covid-19 leads to more physical inactivity which leads to a rise in obesity followed by a decrease in motor skill development leading to further inactivity. Programmes need to be developed that accommodate for the increasing at-home lifestyle that many children have been forced to adopt, while not forgetting about the development of activities appropriate for when the pandemic is over.

Practical Applications

Game #1: Off the Plank

The purpose of ‘Off the Plank’ is to encourage the skipping when it has already been acquired as a locomotor skill with some level of proficiency, ideally at a level of mastery. It aims to do this by using skipping as the main form of movement in the game so that the motion can be practiced. The game also aims to help with the development of muscular strength in the muscles used to skip, improve the overall balance of the children playing the game, and foster the ability to land with shock absorption in mind by promoting landing on the balls of the feet with bended knees throughout the game.

The target age for ‘Off the Plank’ is children between the ages of 6 to 10 years.

The only equipment needed to play ‘Off the Plank is’ fifteen to twenty soft medium-sized foam balls such as dodgeballs, the number of balls may need to be increased or decreased based on the number of participants. ‘Off the Plank’ should be played in an open space such as a flat field or gymnasium. To set up the game the instructor or teacher should divide the balls in half evenly and space them out along two parallel lines. The parallel lines of balls should be approximately fifteen feet apart and span approximately thirty feet in length.

Created by V. Epp, copyright 2020

How to play ‘Off the Plank’:

  • This game was created with the intention that it should be played with at least ten children. With at least these many participants start by diving them into two equal teams. The first team will be called the ‘Traitors’ and the second team will be called the ‘Pirates’.
  • The ‘Pirates’ will be divided in half again with one half of them sitting behind one line of dodgeballs which have already been set up and the other half sitting opposite them behind the other line of dodgeballs.
  • Meanwhile the ‘Traitors’ will all be gathered at one end of the field or gymnasium perpendicular to the lines of dodgeballs and ‘Pirates’.
  • When everyone is in the correct positions the instructor or teacher will yell: “Off the Plank!”.
  • At this cue the ‘Traitors’ should begin skipping down the ‘plank’ (the middle of the two lines of dodgeballs) as fast as they can while still keeping up the correct rhythmic step and hop pattern that skipping requires (Kiddo, 2019).
  • Meanwhile the ‘Pirates’ will begin to roll ‘cannonballs’ (the dodgeballs) towards the ‘Traitors’ aiming at their ankles. The ‘Pirates’ may want to shout “Cannonball!” for fun if the instructor or teacher doesn’t mind the noise. The ‘Pirates’ should remain seated while they do this. Since they are parallel to the other ‘Pirates’ they should be able to collect and re-roll balls towards the ‘Traitors’ after the first time they do it.
  • The goal of the game for the ‘Traitors’ is to reach the end of the ‘plank’ (lines of dodgeballs) and still be skipping, while the goal of the game for the ‘Pirates’ is to touch a ‘Traitor’ with a dodgeball on the foot or ankle.
  • If a ‘Traitor’ gets touched on the foot or ankle by a dodgeball they must stop skipping and switch to hopping on one foot to the end of the ‘plank’. While they are hopping on one foot they should be landing on the ball of their foot and bending their knee as they in order to work on the shock absorption technique that is fundamental to skipping (Prapavessis & McNair, 1999). Additionally, they will be working on strengthening the same muscles used in skipping and practicing their balance which is another fundamental aspect of successful skipping (Kiddo, 2019).
  • When the round is over and the ‘Traitors’ have reached the end of the ‘plank’ the instructor should reset the game by realigning the dodgeballs and the teams should be switched so that for the next round the ‘Traitors’ become the ‘Pirates’ and the ‘Pirates’ become the ‘Traitors’.
  • This game can be repeated as many times as the instructor and children would like.

This game was created with acquisition of a mastery of skipping in mind, such that children who can already skip proficiently can practice skipping at a fast pace. While the game assumes that the children playing it will already be somewhat competent in this locomotor area there are modifications that can be made if they are not. If the ‘Traitors’ playing ‘Off the Plank’ are not able to skip yet they could start the game by hopping on one foot and then when they are hit by ‘cannonballs’ they could move to hopping on two feet. As long as their form is good and they are landing on the balls of their feet with bent knees, which is a precursor to the eventual acquisition of skipping as a locomotor skill, this game will still be beneficial for them (Kiddo, 2019). They could also practice swinging their arms in a rhythmic motion as they land on two feet just as they would while they are skipping. This will help them acquire the eventual rhythmic and balancing aspects of skipping (Kiddo, 2019).

Additionally, if the children playing this game are already quite good at skipping then the length of the span of the dodgeballs can be increased. By increasing the length that the children have to skip they will be skipping for longer and practicing more. Practice is important even if the children are already proficient at this locomotor skill because it encourages physical activity and skipping in its correct form.

Game #2: Life Line

The purpose of ‘Life Line’ is to help achieve a mastery of skipping and to practice the skills that underlie skipping. It was developed so that children who can already skip can practice skipping and improve their balance and accuracy while skipping. It is also meant to increase the overall strength of the muscles used in skipping, encourage children to skip with the proper rhythmic motion of skipping in mind, and teach the children playing it to land properly on the balls of their feet with a bended knee to practice shock absorption.

The target age for ‘Life Line’ is children between the ages of 6 to 10 years.

There is no equipment needed to play ‘Life Line’, just the participants and the correct environment are needed. ‘Life Line’ should be played inside of a gymnasium with markings on the floor for basketball or hockey. It could also be played outdoors on a tennis or basketball court. While there is no equipment needed to play ‘Life Line’ the markings on the ground of these courts are essential to the game.

How to play ‘Life Line’:

  • This game was created with the intention that it should be played with at least fifteen children and a maximum of approximately thirty. Out of these participants the teacher or instructor should pick two to four children to be ‘sharks’ the rest of the children will be ‘swimmers’.
  • The ‘sharks’ will be tasked with chasing the ‘swimmers’. The goal of a ‘shark’ is to tag a ‘swimmer’ gently on the shoulder and the goal of a 'swimmer' is to not be tagged by a 'shark'.
  • When a ‘swimmer’ is tagged they will then become a ‘shark’ and the original ‘shark’ will become a ‘swimmer’.
  • Both ‘sharks’ and ‘swimmers’ are only permitted to move along the lines marked on the floor of the space ‘Life Line’ is being played on. This will mean different directions of movement are allowed depending on the court ‘Life Line’ is being played on. For example, if ‘Life Line’ is being played on a basketball court then the children must stay on the lines of the basketball court. If it is being played in a gymnasium with hockey pitch markings, then the children must stay on the lines of the hockey pitch and so on. These lines are their 'Life Lines' and they must stay on them at all times. Because they must stay on relatively narrow lines this should act as a way for them to practice balancing which is fundamental to skipping (Active For Life, n.d.).
  • The ‘sharks’ and ‘swimmers’ are not allowed to walk or run while playing this game. They must skip in order to move. This will help with the mastery of skipping as a fundamental locomotor skill through practice and because they will be skipping fast in order to out skip each other (Kiddo, 2019).
  • For the most part the players of this game should be moving for the entire time they are playing. This will help with the development of muscular strength through physical activity and will specifically target the muscles used for skipping (Derri et al., 2001).
  • While the children playing ‘Life Line’ should be moving for most of the time they are playing this game there are times that they might stop. This could happen if they are a ‘swimmer’ and there are no ‘sharks’ around them. If this happens and they have stopped and are no longer moving, they will hop in place on one foot. Thus, while they will not be moving directionally, they will still be physically active. This will help them to strengthen the muscles used in skipping, help with the development of balancing, and get them to practice landing on the ball of their foot with a bent knee in order to practice shock absorption (Kiddo, 2019; Prapavessis & McNair, 1999). They may alternate which leg they are hopping on if they get tired as this will help with development on both sides of the body, not just their dominant side.
  • Throughout the duration of the game the instructor may want to play music to help the children coordinate the rhythmic motion of skipping. Music surrounding the game’s theme of swimming and sharks is recommended so that the game is cohesive although this is unnecessary and up to the discretion of the instructor.
  • ‘Life Line’ can be played for a long or short amount of time depending on the preference of the instructor. It has no definite end and can be stopped at any time should the instructor wish to reassign new 'sharks'.

This game was created with the acquisition of the mastery of skipping in mind because by 8 years old children should have developed all aspects of skipping (Kiddo, 2019). However, if younger children are playing or children over the age of 8 who are not at a proficient level of skipping yet modifications can be made to accommodate them. If the children playing do not know how to skip, then the game could be played by hopping on one foot and using that as the primary means of movement. When they are not moving they could hop on two feet in place. As long as these movements are being done with the correct form, meaning that the children are bending their knees when they land and landing on the balls of their feet, this movement experience would still help with the eventual acquisition of skipping (Prapavessis & McNair, 1999). They will also still be using and strengthening the muscles in the legs used for skipping and be practicing their balance as they have to follow the lines of the court which should help with the eventual development of skipping as a locomotor skill (Kiddo, 2019; Active For Life, n.d.). They should also practice swinging their arms when they do this as it will not only help with balance but with the rhythmic aspect of skipping (Kiddo, 2019).

If the children playing the game are already masters of skipping then modifications can also be made so that the game is more challenging for them. When assigning ‘sharks’ for the game the instructor should assign a higher number of children playing to be ‘sharks’. Because of this increase the ‘swimmers’ will have to move more and skip faster to get away from the ‘sharks’ while still balancing on the lines of the court. Additionally, the instructor could play music with a very fast tempo while the children play. Because skipping is a rhythmic activity this will encourage the children playing to skip even faster. This increased pace will help them improve the rhythm and the coordination they skip with even if they are already quite proficient at the skill (Kiddo, 2019).

Summary

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References

Active For Life. (n.d.). Fundamental Movement Skills Lesson Plan 2: Jumping, Hopping & Skipping. https://activeforlife.com/content/uploads/2013/06/ActiveForLife_ActiveStart_FundamentalMovementSkills_LessonPlan2_jump_hop_skip.pdf

Bredin, Shannon. (2020). Summary Sheet Fundamental Motor Skills. Canvas. https://canvas.ubc.ca/courses/60344/files/10110408?module_item_id=2446486

Chugani, H. T. (1998). A critical period of brain development: Studies of cerebral glucose utilization with PET. Preventive Medicine, 27(2), 184-188. doi:10.1006/pmed.1998.0274

Derri, V., Tsapakidou, A., Zachopoulou, E., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2001). Effect of a music and movement programme on development of locomotor skills by children 4 to 6 years of age. European Journal of Physical Education, 6(1), 16-25.

Fisher, A., Reilly, J. J., Kelly, L. A., Montgomery, C., Williamson, A., Paton, J. Y., & Grant, S. (2005). Fundamental movement skills and habitual physical activity in young children. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 37(4), 684-688.

Government of Canada. (2019). Childhood Obesity. Retrieved from the Government of Canada website: https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/childhood-obesity/childhood-obesity.html

Graf, C., Koch, B., Kretschmann-Kandel, E., Falkowski, G., Christ, H., Coburger, S., ... & Predel, H. G. (2004). Correlation between BMI, leisure habits and motor abilities in childhood (CHILT-project). International journal of obesity, 28(1), 22-26.

Graham, G. (1991). Results of motor skill testing. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 10(4), 353-374.

Khangholi, M., Foroghipour, H., & Roozbahani, M. (2014). The Relationship between Body Mass Index and Skipping and Hopping Skills of Fundamental Movement, in Children Aged 10-12 Years. European Academic Research, 1(11), 4394-4403.

Prapavessis, H., & McNair, P. J. (1999). Effects of instruction in jumping technique and experience jumping on ground reaction forces. Journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy, 29(6), 352-356.

Tomporowski, P. D., Lambourne, K., & Okumura, M. S. (2011). Physical activity interventions and children's mental function: an introduction and overview. Preventive medicine, 52, S3-S9.

World Health Organization. (2020). WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard: Overview. Retrieved from the World Health Organization website: https://covid19.who.int/

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