Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Running

Defining the Concept and Its Importance

Running and walking are two of the most common forms of upright bipedal locomotion (Masci, Vannozzi, Bergamini, Pesce, Getchell & Cappozzo, 2013). Running is defined as a method of terrestrial locomotion allowing humans and other species to move swiftly on foot (Novacheck, 1998). Although both walking and running have alternating symmetrical locomotor patterns, they differ significantly in gait cycles (Novacheck, 1998). Walking requires one foot to remain in contact with the ground (Novacheck, 1998); whereas, running alternates between periods of support (when both feet are in contact with the ground) and periods of flight (when neither foot is in contact with the ground) (Novacheck, 1998; Whitall & Getchell, 1995).

Running is considered a gross motor skill as it utilizes the whole-body and requires activation of various large muscle groups (Gibson, 1988).  Moreover, running is further classified as a fundamental movement skill (FMS), meaning this skill creates the foundation and is necessary for promoting more complex and essential everyday movements (Gibson, 1988).

Previously, our ancestors utilized running as a method of food retrieval (Thompson, 2012). According to the theory of endurance running, our level of endurance permitted the ability to run at such length that the prey would collapse as a result of heat exhaustion (Thompson, 2012). Although humans no longer require running as means of survival, today, we continue to use running as a basic form of locomotion, affording us the ability to explore and experience the world around us.

The general window of opportunity for basic gross motor skill acquisition appears between prenatal age to five years old (Whitall & Getchell, 1995). Whithall and Gretchell (1995) express that there are preliminary skills which need to be mastered before commencement of more challenging skills. In other words, children will pass through the same developmental sequence regardless of their backgrounds or environments. For example, the skill running would be acquired after the skill of walking due to the challenge of both limbs being off the ground. On average, toddlers attempt to run between the ages of twelve to twenty-four months, around six months after the emergence of independent walking. Near the ages of two or three running with true periods of flight phases begin (Gallahue, Donnelly & Gallahue, 2003). Practice, experience and age, typically around four and five, permits increased limb control, ability to start, stop and move in both both linear and curvilinear patterns (Gallahue, Donnelly & Gallahue, 20030. At this point in a child’s life, competence in this FMS should be reached.

It is essential children are afforded many occasions to experience and apply skills such as running during the identified window of opportunity. If skills are not fully developed the individuals affective, physical, cognitive and emotional development will be impeded upon. For example, if running is not achieved, then poor muscle development occurs, delayed play skills, difficulty interacting with the environment and peer interactions may ensue. Moreover, lack of ability will impact the child’s confidence in movement-based activities, which will then decrease their level of intrinsic motivation and influence their likelihood of returning to these forms of activity. Thus, running is a foundational skill that can assist in establishing a healthy, active lifestyle providing numerous opportunities for participation in various environments.

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) play a critical role in a child’s development (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). The mastery of these skills provides a foundation for an active lifestyle and contributes to children’s social, cognitive and physical development (Lubans et al., 2010).

When confident and competent in FMS, children can develop sport-specific, specialized and complex movement skills required for adequate participation in many organized and non-organized activities (Lubans et al., 2010). Children who are able to achieve this level of competence, above the proficiency barrier, tend to engage in various physical activities with their peers (Barnett et al., 2016). Conversely, children without FMS such as running would likely be unable or unwilling to participate in an activity requiring proficiency in that skill (Lubans et al., 2010; Sports for Life, 2020). For example, running is critical for participation in many sports such as basketball, soccer and handball (Sports for Life, 2020). Individuals who feel competent with this skill will be more inclined to participate in activities which involve the skill, compared to those individuals who lack the ability (Sports for Life, 2020). Thus, being proficient in this skill will either promote or impede socialization.

Various studies have indicated the cognitive-boosting effects of aerobic exercise, more specifically running (Khan, 2015; Lees & Hopkins, 2013). Although the answer remains unclear, Lees and Hopkins (2013) believe running has positive benefits for cognition, academic achievement, behaviour and psychosocial functioning. Not only does running increase the volume of blood being transported to the brain, but it significantly elevates moods and reduces stress levels (Lees & Hopkins, 2013). Although running both directly and indirectly impacts cognition, it is a critical factor for proper cognitive development.

Running is a used to accomplish locomotion, which is highly connected to physical activity levels (Masci et al., 2013). Sports for Life (2020) suggests that increasing child physical literacy is essential to increasing physical activity levels. Physical literacy is defined as the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life (Sports for Life, 2020). The more proficient a child is in performing basic skills, the more intrinsically motivated they will be to be physically active or return to a physical activity (Sports for Life, 2020)

Coaches, teachers and early childhood educators play an important role in establishing physical literacy among students. Essentially, enabling physical literacy is critical for attaining lifelong participation in physical activity (Lubans et al., 2010; Sports for Life, 2020). Although children naturally develop basic forms of fundamental movement patterns, appropriate practice, encouragement, feedback and instruction are required to achieve proficiency (Masci et al., 2013). Moreover, children who do not receive sufficient instruction and opportunities to practice, may display a variety of developmental delays in gross motor skill acquisition (Lubans et al., 2010). Therefore, instructors must have the knowledge to identify the developmental characteristics of their learners so developmentally appropriate activities can be introduced. The participation cycle highlights the importance of activities matching students’ abilities. When the activity is appropriately selected, the student will be optimally challenged which ultimately provides increased opportunities for success, improving feelings of self-confidence and self-competence. This will further enhance the students’ intrinsic motivation, impacting the likelihood of returning to the activity, in this case being physically active throughout the lifespan.  

Despite the current information on the importance of physical literacy, child obesity rates continue to rise (Masci et al., 2013). Low motor skill level and poor physical activity levels correlate and contribute to rising numbers of overweight and obese children (Masci et al., 2013). Ironically, the more overweight children become the more strength they require to move. Haywood and Getchell (2005) state how strength is a major constraint which hinders the development of walking, ultimately impacting the onset of running. In order to run, children must have sufficient strength to not only hold themselves up but propel themselves off of one leg to another (Haywood and Getchell, 2005). Moreover, the individual has to be able to manage any additional forces that may be encountered when the foot strikes the ground (Haywood and Getchell, 2005). Therefore, it appears as if the development of FMS is cyclical. As child obesity increases, so does the difficulty for FMS proficiency, ultimately affecting the individuals desire to participate in lifelong physical activity and contributing to further health risks. In order to break this cycle, both teachers and coaches should promote activities and provide opportunities which optimally challenge learners to develop their motor skills.

Practical Applications

Initiating FMS in children is the gateway towards an active lifestyle and lifelong participation (Lubans et al., 2010; Sports for Life, 2020). FMS such as running, is therefore an important prerequisite for many sports (Sports for Life, 2020). The combination of leg, torso, and upper body muscles work synchronously to project the individual forward, requiring both skill and strength. Both activities listed below attempt to conquer possible rate limiters and constraints that appear during running which facilitate further development of the locomotor skill and promote physical activity.

Ollie Octopus

The purpose of the game described by Fit Kids Healthy Kids (n.d.) is to achieve proficiency in bipedal locomotion by challenging the child’s speed and coordination of running. The children have the opportunity to practice running in a linear and nonlinear fashion including the ability to quickly change directionality. These are important aspects of developing locomotor movement. Children will learn and discover the biomechanical mechanisms that help them gain speed to efficiently reach their target. These components contribute towards a skilled running movement. Interaction among peers during this activity will also improve socialization which contribute to healthy development overall.

The activity is targeted towards children ages six to nine to introduce elements of physical literacy that refine and improve critical motor skills.

This activity can be played indoors in a studio/gymnasium environment or in an outdoor setting with a flat terrain, such as a field. The only equipment needed are pylons to set boundaries and bean bags. Pinnies are optional for the octopi to wear to avoid confusion. If pylons are limited, laying a jump rope on two ends of the space to indicate safe zones as soon as the individual passes the rope is a good alternative. The rectangular space encompassed is the tagging zone.

One or two children are selected to be the octopus and situate themselves in the middle of the playing space while the rest are sea creatures. The sea creatures will stand in the safe zone on one end of the space with the objective of bringing two bean bags or “seaweed” to the other end. The game begins when the sea creatures chant “Ollie Ollie! You Can’t Catch Me!” and try to run to the opposite side of the play space without getting tagged by the octopi. Instead of turning into seaweed like the original game suggests (Fit Kids Healthy Kids, n.d.), those who are tagged will become octopi and try to tag the remaining sea creatures. Once the individual reaches the safe zone, they are required to ten high knees. Individuals who run out of bounds will also turn into octopi. The game is over when everyone has turned into an octopus.

The game is modified for children who may exhibit running constraints related to speed as the movement of high knees can help emphasize the height at which the body part needs to be. They can accomplish the running movement and gain speed by using more force generated to push off the ground. As a result, children should exemplify a greater muscular movement which leads to stronger locomotion. The game is also modified to introduce relationship awareness associated with running in which children are instructed to run to the other side while holding a bean bag to represent “seaweed.”. Elements of object awareness are included in the game to make it more challenging and help with the light grip needed of the fist during running (Kid Do, n.d). The appropriate weight of the bean bag may also promote the pumping motion of the arms to propel the child forward.

Further Modifications or Progressions:  

1. Boundary adjustment to increase or decrease the tagging zone. For children who struggle with the technique of speeding up and slowing down, making the play area smaller can foster greater participation and application of the skill.
2. Running with a partner across the tagging zone can be tailored to a group of children who may already be proficient in running. Given this, introducing the task of running with others can challenge those who already excel individually to create greater intrinsic motivation.
3. Accommodations can be made for children who require more strength to move their bodies and struggle to keep up with other children. These children can be asked to begin as the octopi while the other sea creatures are instructed to wear backpacks with weight added to them.

Zone Tag

The purpose of this game is to keep children in locomotor activity to promote directionality of running and therefore increase cognitive development. Zone tag increases participation and enhances gross motor skill acquisition through continuous momentum produced by the body. This allows the child to practice fundamental motor skills through aerobic exercise by encouraging movement. Involvement in aerobic exercise can positive benefits towards a child's understanding of physical literacy skills. Ultimately, tag is a significant game that allows children to be physically active and is the basis of developing locomotor skills that are needed in more complex movements.

The target age for this game would be four to six years of age so development near the end of the window of opportunity can help solidify basic gross motor skills and enable movement-based growth. Moreover, children who have delayed motor skill due to lack of physical activity are given a period to catch up which is what makes Zone tag important in this age group.

Equipment such as pylons or large hula hoops can be used to create no-tag zones across the play area. For every five children, create one no-tag zone. The game can be played in a large indoor or outdoor space.

Depending on group size, two or three children are recruited to be the taggers. The other children must identify who the taggers are and avoid them when the game starts. Once the activity begins, children are permitted to remain in the no-tag zones for a maximum of five second each before moving onto another. Taggers should try to tag as many children as possible in the tag zone and acknowledge that they are safe in the enclosed no-tag area. Once an individual steps out of the no-tag zone, they cannot immediately step back in. When tagged, the child must report to the moderator and perform a physical literacy task in order to reenter the game. The teacher, coach or childhood educator play an important role as a moderator as they determine this task. This game is fast paced and can continue indefinitely until the moderator pauses the game and appoints new taggers.

Further Modifications or Progressions:

Many modifications can be integrated to encourage development of running patterns across varying needs and abilities of children.

1. Tasks such as marching on the spot for ten seconds and making sure that arm movement and knee height is sufficient, can help children who demonstrate a limited leg and arm movement during running. Bringing the knee high enough can generate more strength to push off the ground and therefore overcome the rate limiter. The moderator can choose other tasks that cater towards the child’s movement difficulties to improve running skills.
2. Moving the apparatus outside where the terrain may be uneven. The placing of no-tag zones on varying terrain levels exerts more energy and power of the muscles to maintain locomotion. This makes it more challenging.
3. Creating spatial awareness during running by placing no-tag zones near an object such as a tree. The purposeful placement of these zones near non-moving objects creates a target for children to run to and encourage them to keep their head up while running.

Summary

Running is a gross motor skill as it uses the whole body and large muscle groups and is an FMS because running is a foundation to more complex skills. Every child must go through a sequences of motor development skills to move to complex skills. Toddlers starts to run after 6 months of learning to walk. Then around the ages of 2-3 there will be true periods of flight phase and by the time they reach 4-5 they will be practicing and experiencing to be more proficient. Play variations and modified games of tag can help facilitate running.

References

Fit Kids Healthy Kids. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://fitkidshealthykids.ca/

Gallahue, D., Donnelly, F., & Gallahue, D. (2003). Developmental physical education for all children (pp. 448-452). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Gibson, E. J. (1988). Exploratory behavior in the development of perceiving, acting, and the acquiring of knowledge. Annual Review of Psychology, 39(1), 1-42. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.39.020188.000245

Haywood, K., & Getchell, N. (2005). Life span motor development. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Khan, A. (2015). The potential benefits of aerobic exercise on cognition and affect in children

Kid Do. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://kiddo.edu.au/

Lees, C., & Hopkins, J. (2013). Effect of aerobic exercise on cognition, academic achievement, and psychosocial function in children: A systematic review of randomized control trials. Preventing Chronic Disease, 10, E174. doi:10.5888/pcd10.130010

Lubans, D. R., Morgan, P. J., Cliff, D. P., Barnett, L. M., & Okely, A. D. (2010). Fundamental    movement skills in children and adolescents: Review of associated health benefits. Sports Medicine, 40(12), 1019-1035. doi:10.2165/11536850-000000000-0000

Masci, I., Vannozzi, G., Bergamini, E., Pesce, C., Getchell, N., & Cappozzo, A. (2013). Assessing locomotor skills development in childhood using wearable inertial sensor devices: The running paradigm. Gait & Posture, 37(4), 570-574. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2012.09.017

Novacheck, T. F. (1998). The biomechanics of running. Gait & Posture, 7(1), 77-95. doi:10.1016/s0966-6362(97)00038-6

Sports for Life. (2020). Physical Literacy. Sports for Life Canada. https://physicalliteracy.ca

Whitall, J., & Getchell, N. (1995). From walking to running: Applying a dynamical systems approach to the development of locomotor skills. Child Development, 66(5), 1541. doi:10.2307/1131663

Thompson, N (Producer and Director). (2012). The Perfect Runner [Motion picture]. Canada: U of A Research.