Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Observational Learning
Defining the Concept and Its Importance
Observational learning is learning by observing others’ actions and consequences in a social setting. The model of these actions could be anyone such as a caregiver of a child, a teacher, a colleague or a peer classmate. By observing the behaviour and consequences of the demonstrators, people formulate outcome expectancies about future outcomes of their own actions (Bandura, 1969, 1971).
According to Bandura (1977), observation learning involves 4 stages, which are attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
During the attention stage, the demonstrator shows movements with relative spatial and temporal features. The observers/learners focus and gather the information that catches their attention. The focus of the observer depends on their familiarity with the movement, the task structure, or the consequence it leads to.
During the retention stage, observers transform and code the movement information into multidimensional symbols that are stored in their brains, which allows them to retrieve and reproduce the movement.
At the motor reproduction stage, the observer has the fundamental physical and intellectual capability, they are able to transform the coded movement into action with the spatial and temporal features resembling the demonstrated movement.
Finally, when motivation arises, the observer will reproduce the movement. The motivation for the production of the movement can range from external, tangible reinforcement to internal goals. (Bandura, 1969, 1971, 1986).
Observational learning is one of the primary ways for individuals to acquire new knowledge and skills (Ferrari, 1996). Motor skills are one of the most basic and prevalent types of knowledge that individuals must acquire over their life span. Motor skills range from basic daily movements, such as chewing food, walking, jogging, to specific techniques in professional sports, such as skiing, biking, and ball throwing. Visual demonstration in the observational learning process provides the details and specific motoric knowledge that is hard to explain by just verbal instruction (Al-abood et al., 2001; Janelle et al., 2003; McMillan, 1972). It is also shown in studies that with visual demonstration provided and observational learning, learners’ movement has a significantly higher approximation to the movement of models’ (Al-abood et al., 2001).
Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations
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Observational learning is one of the primary ways to gain motor skills, and it’s also an important building block for social and cognitive development. Research has shown the important role of observational learning for imitative behaviours of infants, such as tongue protrusion and head movement (Flavell, 1985; Meltzoff & Moore, 1989). It also plays an important role in the behaviour changes of adolescents, such as increased physical activities (Nixon et al., 2012). Demonstration and observational learning are also one of the most frequently used methods for the acquisition of more complex techniques, such as ball throwing and penalty-kick in soccer, in late adolescents and early adulthood (McMillan, 1972; Williams & Hodges, 2005). Complex behaviours may be difficult to learn just from verbal instruction, so observation of in person or video demonstration is important in acquiring these new skills (Ferrari, 1996). It’s also happening constantly during social play, allowing children to learn social rules and norms from their peers. Research shows that observational learning also leads to the acquisition of socially relevant behaviour, which increases social integration opportunities (Ledford, Gast, Luscre, & Ayres, 2008). Many “social norms” that we adhere to and practice are gained from the observed responses of others (Taylor & DeQuinzio, 2012). For example, when entering a new social situation in which we do not know what to do, we look around and observe what others are doing, and imitate the behaviours of others to fit in (Taylor & DeQuinzio, 2012).
For children with autism, however, they are less likely to attend to and observe others (Patten & Watson, 2011; Senju, Yaguchi, Tojo, & Hasegawa, 2003), showing deficits in observational learning. Thus, it is difficult for children with autism who present with significant social challenges, to learn motor skills and social responses by observing others. However, there are studies show observational learning from video demonstrations can help children with autism learn to imitate an array of complex responses, including gestures (Ingersoll, Lewis, & Kroman, 2007), play responses of peers (Garfinkle & Schwartz, 2002) and actions (D’Ateno, Mangiapanello, & Taylor, 2003). This helps children to observe and imitate others while avoiding direct social interaction with others.
Autism is not the only disease of which condition can be improved by observational learning. Observational learning is also frequently adopted in the intervention of childhood and adolescence overweight and obesity. The prevalence of obesity has increased at an alarming rate. Globally, in 2016 the number of overweight children under the age of five is estimated to be over 41 million (World Health Organization, 2017). Increasing the physical activity of children can help maintain healthy body weight while developing healthy musculoskeletal tissues, a healthy cardiovascular system, and neuromuscular awareness (i.e. coordination and movement control) (World Health Organization, 2019). Studies have shown the effectiveness of observational learning in obesity prevention and intervention. A systematic review conducted by Nixon et al (2012), studied the effect of observational learning in obesity prevention for 4-6-year-olds. In the studies they reviewed, parents were encouraged to work with their children to facilitate behaviour change through modelling healthful behaviour themselves during the intervention. Results showed favourable effects on physical activity behaviours. Other studies have also shown the effect of observational learning including increased physical activity, reduced sedentary time for the participants (Rostamian & Kazemi, 2016), and an increase in health-related fitness knowledge (Bullock, 2014). Some researchers also studied the effect of video activity demonstrations, such as Dance Dance Revolution, on childhood obesity prevention, and reported a decrease in sedentary screen time and a potential increase in vigorous physical activity (Maloney et al., 2008).
Apart from assisting children with autism and obesity, video demonstration has become highly convenient and common for motor skills demonstration and acquisition nowadays. Several studies have compared the effectiveness of video models and live models in terms of observational learning (Feltz et al., 1979; Lhuisset & Margnes, 2015; Martens et al., 1976; McMillan, 1972). Some show that the movement demonstrations delivered through video models are equally effective for the learners as those from live demonstrations (Feltz et al., 1979; Martens et al., 1976), while others show better results from video demonstrations of complex coordination, such as ball throwing (McMillan, 1972) and judo techniques (Lhuisset & Margnes, 2015).
One explanation is that the movement models provided in the videos are more precise and consistent, avoiding confounds and unnecessary movements that would be otherwise confusing (Janelle et al., 2003). This provides more opportunities for the general public to gain motor skills as mobile devices for video demonstrations are easy to access nowadays. It makes the experts’ movement knowledge more accessible. And during times that are hard to be trained in person (e.g. bad weathers shutdowns, COVID-19 pandemic), it provides possibilities to be self-trained at home. Commercially, it also provides threats and opportunities for coaches and personal trainers to change their work routine/business strategies, moving their service and education content online (YouTube series, online courses).
Practical Applications
“Who’s the Leader?” Game
The purpose of this game is for young children to develop their general observational learning through observing the actions of others and trying to imitate them correctly in a social setting. Learning these skills will help children learn “social norms” and will help them to observe and imitate others in new situations in order to fit in (Taylor & DeQuinzio, 2012). This game also aims to meet each stage of obersvational learning which are attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation (Bandura, 1977).
The target age for this activity will be children ages 4 to 6 as this is a typical age for kids to enter into school and begin being more immersed in a social setting with their peers. It is an important time for them to be learning all of the stages of observational learning so that they are able to recreate them in their real lives. By the age of 6, kids are wanting to be like their friends and fit in so this is an appropriate age for this activity (Gerber et al., 2010).
There is no equipment that is necessary for this game since it only involves doing various body movements. However, there does need to be enough space for all of the children to sit in a circle with one child standing in the middle. The size of the circle will be determined by the number of children participating, the level of difficulty, and the amount of space available.
This game begins by having everyone sit in a circle and designating one child to be “it”. The child who is “it” will leave the room or close their eyes and another child will be chosen as the leader. The leader will begin an action such as clapping their hands or tapping their head and everyone else will follow suit. The “it” person will return to the room and stand in the middle. Their goal is to determine who is leading the movements. Everyone else’s goal is to observe closely so they can switch movements quickly and prevent the person who is “it” from choosing the correct leader. As the person watches from the middle, the leader will continue to change movements with hopes that the followers will be quick enough to copy them that the person who is “it” will not know who changed first. If the person who is “it” does not correctly guess the leader then they will leave the room again and the process will repeat.
Some modifications can be made to this game in order to make it fit the needs of the participants. In order to make it easier for the person who is “it” to find the leader, the circle can be smaller so that they can see more of what is going on and there are less options to choose from. This level is good for children who are just beginning to formally practice their observational learning. Additionally, the opposite can be done to make it harder for more advanced observational learners. To make it the game the right level for the players, the movements that are done can be made more simple or complex. For example, the beginner movements could be tapping the head with one hand or clapping their hands together whereas more advanced movements could include rhythmic patterns such as clapping twice and then raising their arms. Finally, some strategy can be involved in order to make it more interesting for older or more advanced children. For example, they could decide that everyone watches the person to their left to determine what movement to do instead of everyone looking at the leader. This would confuse the person in the middle and they would have to be looking for the person who is changing first rather than relying on looking at who people’s gaze is directed at. All of these modifications can help make the game fit the current stage of observational learning for the participants.
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This game can be constructed to follow the four observational learner techniques, attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation (Bandura, 1977). In the attention stage, one person is showing the movements and the observers are taking in that information (Bandura, 1977). This could be done before the game by the teacher or instructor demonstrating some of the potential movements for the game as the children watch. Next, in the retention phase, they are transforming what they just took in into movement information so that they will be able to recreate it (Bandura, 1977). This could be done by having the instructor ask everyone if they understands the movements so they can tell if it has been retained. Afterwards, in the motor reproduction stage, the children are capable of reproducing the movement that was demonstrated (Bandura, 1977). This can be done by having the children copy the movements that the teacher is demonstrating before the game begins. Finally, the children need motivation so that they will continue to reproduce the movement (Bandura, 1977). In this case, the motivation is winning the game. With that in mind, all of the children will be observing and learning from the movements of others in the game and then hopefully be able to translate those skills into their everyday lives.
“Professional Yoga Video Demonstration” Activity
The purpose of this activity is to improve complex skills in adolescents through observational learning of precise and accurate movements from a professional instructor. It has been found that observational learning for complex skills is improved when using video versus a live instruction (Lhuisset & Margnes, 2015). This may be because the videos can be made by professionals and be easily distributed for less money than it would be for them to go around and teach every adolescent these skills. This is a better alternative than trying to observe and learn from someone such as a P.E. teacher who is likely not as precise or accurate in these complex movements.
The target age range for this activity is for adolescents aged 13-18 as they are more developmentally capable of doing more complex movements. They are also often more sophistically educated when it comes to technology so they may be better suited to learn from a screen than a younger child.
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The equipment that is needed for this activity is a yoga mat for each participant, a video recording of the yoga sequence or sequences, and a device that is capable of playing this video to the participants. There also needs to be enough space for each participant to spread out their mats and not touch each other during the movements. The space that is needed will change depending on the number of people participating and the type of movements that will be observed and copied.
This activity will be done by first having a professional yoga instructor film multiple complex yoga videos for a variety of skills and levels. Next, a device will be set up where this video can be seen by multiple people and yoga mats will be placed in front of it. The adolescents who are participating in this activity will go to a yoga mat and observe the video. As they are observing the video they are hopefully learning lots of complex movements and will then be able to reproduce those movements. The beneficial thing of using videos made by professionals to learn complex movements is that all the skills and movements will be accurate and correct. This type of observational learning will produce more positive outcomes than learning from someone who is not able to accurately demonstrate the complex movements.
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In order for this activity to be accessible to a range of skill levels and abilities, there are a few modifications that can be made. First, multiple videos of different skill levels will be available so that everyone can participate depending on their desired level of difficulty and their previous experiences. Additionally, there is the option to fast forward, rewind, speed up, or slow down videos which makes room for lots of modifications. If someone is having a hard time learning a specific sequence then they can slow down the video and repeat it as many times as they want. On the other hand, if someone is finding the sequence to simple, they can speed it up or skip ahead to a more difficult section. This will help meet the needs of the learner who is observer, no matter what stage they are currently at.
Observational learning is an important skill to acquire and develop for people of all ages. By using an activity such as watching a yoga video performed by a professional, the movements that are being observed are more precise and consistent (Janelle et al., 2003). They are also avoiding unnecessary movements that may just confuse the observer and hinder their learning (Janelle et al., 2003). This activity is also beneficial as it makes observational learning easily accessible to anyone who has a device. People do not need to take the time out of their days to go to a studio and they do not need to pay large sums of money in order to learn. The evolution of technology has allowed us to improve our skills of observational learning no matter what we wish to learn, where we wish to learn, or when we wish to learn. It really gives the person a lot of control over their learning.
Summary
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References
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