Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Motor Learning - Knowledge of Results

Knowledge of Results

Defining the Concept and Its Importance

Knowledge of results is when a performer receives feedback from their environment, in relation to their performance, to determine if they were successful or not. Knowledge of results is an important part of skill acquisition processes (Vieira et al., 2014). Feedback can come in different forms, such as intrinsic or extrinsic feedback. Intrinsic feedback is when the participant can physically feel how the movement went and understand how to correct it. Extrinsic feedback is when someone, an external source, is watching the participant and providing feedback to them (BBC, n.d.b). Extrinsic feedback is used when it comes to knowledge of results. Knowledge of results uses the final result of a movement to determine if corrections are needed. An example of knowledge of results is when the participant is able to run a lap in a given time or not. If the participant went over the time, then they would know they need to run faster. Another example is when a participant finishes a competition and sees what place they come in. Feedback given usually comes from coaches, teammates, teachers, or even judges. The advantages of extrinsic feedback for the performer is that it provides additional information, helps identify issues with performance, can create solutions to issues with performance and allows the performer to not plateau (BBC, n.d.a). Coaches should be aware the timing of when to use knowledge of results and extrinsic feedback. It is best to use this type of feedback when the participant is at a beginner stage because it helps build and acquire the fundamentals of movements. Coaches should also make sure they allow for intrinsic feedback as it is just as important for developing and refining skills (BBC, n.d.a). Knowledge of results is an important part of motor learning because it provides the performer with knowledge that they cannot attain by themselves.  

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

Knowledge of results can either be helpful or detrimental to motor learning and acquisition of skills. It is important for coaches, teachers, and early childhood educators to be aware of when and how to effectively use extrinsic feedback. Knowledge of results and extrinsic feedback is important for learning motor skills. It is also necessary to remember that intrinsic feedback is just as important. The amount of extrinsic feedback that is provided to the participant is what determines the performance outcome. A research study was conducted where they compared high frequencies to low frequencies of knowledge of results. The guidance hypothesis stated that less extrinsic feedback during the acquisition phase leads to intrinsic feedback, which results in a better error detection system. The consistency hypothesis stated that higher amounts of knowledge of results would help correct constant errors (Vieira et al., 2014). The research showed that when there were high frequencies of knowledge of results, there was potential for dependency of extrinsic feedback to develop in the performers. This will cause problems in motor learning because the performer will become reliant on their coach to help them improve their skills and will not be able to learn how to use their intrinsic feedback. When intrinsic feedback is not used, the development of error detection is hindered (Vieira et al., 2014). When the researchers looked at low frequencies of knowledge of results, they noticed that the participant would instinctively process their own intrinsic feedback. With less extrinsic feedback, the participant learned to correct errors and develop a pattern of reference. On the other side, the researchers found that if the frequency was too low, the participants would have a difficult time forming a pattern of reference (Vieira et al., 2014). The amount of feedback also depends on the complexity of the skill. The researchers found that more complex skills should have feedback come in smaller doses. To summarize, the research study found that higher frequencies of extrinsic feedback would hinder performance by developing dependency and ignoring intrinsic feedback. The guidance hypothesis was more supported (Vieira et al., 2014).

In a research study looking at self-efficacy and motor learning, the hypothesis was that participants would develop more self-efficacy when they received knowledge of results after better trials instead of worse ones. During the research, they found that the participants performance was enhanced because they developed better self-efficacy from extrinsic feedback on better trials (Saemi et al., 2012). The research found that feedback after good trials allowed for participants to repeat their good movements. It was also found that the participants became more motivated to practice because of the positive knowledge of results (Saemi et al., 2012). When comparing the findings from this research, it contradicted with the guidance hypothesis. The guidance hypothesis found that it was more beneficial to give knowledge of results after bad trials or large errors as opposed to good trials and smaller errors. This is because the intent is to correct errors and guide the participant to better motor learning (Saemi et al., 2012). To summarize, this research article found that self-efficacy and motivation were improved when knowledge of results was provided after their good trials. When it comes to coaches, teachers, and early childhood educators, it is important to understand when and what type of feedback is needed. Knowledge of results and extrinsic feedback is better at lower frequencies. It is important to provide more knowledge of results with beginners and less with more skilled participants. It is also important to develop a child’s self-efficacy and motivation for them to enhance performance. As well, the most important part of feedback is making sure there is balance and an understanding that all participants learn differently. Coaches, teachers and early childhood educators should take into consideration what works best for each participant.

Practical Applications

Shuffleboard vs. Curling

Specific games are able to help children develop the motor skills they need for future development. Indoor Shuffleboard and Bean Bag Toss are great games help motor learning.

Game/Activity 1 –

Title: Indoor Shuffleboard

Purpose Statement:

The purpose of this game is for the child to slide a bean bag beyond the first three lines that are on the ground but not beyond the fourth and final line. After the child is told the results of their slide, they can reattempt to slide their bean bag closer to the desired goal. By telling the child how they did, they can take that knowledge to try to improve their aim in hopes of performing better and achieving the goal.

Target Age: 8-11 years old, although this may be adapted to fit any age group 5 and over.

Child playing Shuffleboard with a Swiffer Sweeper

Apparatus/equipment needed and environmental space-set-up:

-       Use chalk or tape (depending on if you are located indoors or outdoors) to mark 4 lines numbered 1 to 4

-       Have some bean bags (at least one per child)

-       Score board (or a notepad) for the instructor to keep score

Instructions:

(1)  Set up the shuffleboard lines

(2)  Tell the child (or children) the goal of the game

(3)  Have the child stand at least 3 metres away from the first line on their hands and knees (if multiple children, have them line up), make sure there is a mark on the ground as a reference point

(4)  Let the child slide the bean bag toward the lines (ensure that both knees are on the ground and not moving)

(5)  Have the child then approach the lines to see where their bean bag landed (e.g. passed second line)

(6)  Have them repeat their slide 5 times, while allowing them to see how they did in between each round

(7)  Keep score and tell them if they have been improving, or if they are stuck performing the same way (e.g. has a tendency to not slide far enough)

(8)  Let other kids have their turns as well

Modifications:

-       This game can easily be changed into curling; simply replace the lines for a circular target

-       Slide the bean bag with both hands $\downarrow$difficulty as they will have more control over the trajectory of the bean bag

-       Have the child kneel closer to $\downarrow$difficulty, or farther to $\uparrow$­difficulty

- The child may use a stick (as seen in Figure) to launch the bean bag as another method

-       Blindfold the child to ­ difficulty since they can no longer depend on visual cues to slide and must focus on their body movement cues and their results obtained only

o   Prism adapted goggles can be used to further ­$\uparrow$­difficulty as the visual cues that they would be receiving would be distorted and incorrect, meaning the child would have to rely on the results obtained to improve their performance

Game/Activity 2 –

Title: Bean Bag Toss

Purpose Statement:

The purpose of this game is for the child to throw the bean bag as close to the target “100” as possible. A child will receive more points if they land their bean bag closer to the centre of the target. After the child is told the results of their throw, they can reattempt their throw in hopes of getting it closer to the 100 mark. By sharing these results, it encourages the child to improve their performance and adjust their own bodies as they see fit in order to achieve the goal of landing on the 100 mark.  

Target Age: 7-9 years old, although this may be adapted to fit any age group 5 and over.

Apparatus/equipment needed and environmental space-set-up:

-       Create a large target on the floor with either chalk or tape (depending on if you are located indoors or outdoors)

-       Have some bean bags (at least one per child)

-       Score board (or a notepad) for the instructor to keep score

Instructions:

(1)  Set up the target

(2)  Tell the child (or children) the goal of the game

(3)  Have the child stand 3 metres away from the target with both feet on the ground (if multiple children, have them line up), make sure there is a mark on the ground as a reference point

(4)  Let the child throw the bean bag towards the target (ensure that both their feet are on the ground)

(5)  Have the child then approach the target to see where their bean bag landed (e.g. 60 and to the right)

(6)  Have them repeat their throw 5 times, while allowing them to see how they did in between each throw

(7)  Keep score and tell them if they have been improving, or if they are stuck performing in the same way (e.g. has a tendency to throw towards the left and not far enough)

(8)  Let other kids have their turns as well

Modifications: There are numerous modifications that you can make for this game to increase or decrease the difficulty depending on the age group that you’re with and their levels of expertise.

-       Throw the bean bag with the non-dominant arm/hand to ­ difficulty

-       Throw the bean bag underhand to $\downarrow$difficulty

-       Throw the bean bag overhand to ­$\uparrow$ difficulty

-       Have the child stand closer to $\downarrow$difficulty, or farther to ­$\uparrow$difficulty

-       Blindfold the child to ­ difficulty since they can no longer depend on visual cues to slide and must focus on their body movement cues and their results obtained only

o   Prism adapted goggles can be used to further ­$\uparrow$­difficulty as the visual cues that they would be receiving would be distorted and incorrect, meaning the child would have to rely on the results obtained to improve their performance

These two games contribute greatly to motor learning in children. Without games like these a child can have problems developing the proper motor skills needed in order go about daily life as they begin to age.

Summary

Motor learning is the acquisition of movements to develop motor skills. Developing motor skills is important because it directly relates to the cognitive, emotional, and social attributes of a child (Colella & Morano, 2011). Two games that support motor learning are indoor shuffleboard and bean bag toss. These games encourage the child to improve their performance in order to win the game. It is important for children to be given instructions and feedback for an activity in a well worded manner, this leads to an increase self-efficacy in the child. Motor learning is the foundation for children to lead healthy and physically active lifestyles.

References

Colella, D., & Morano, M. (2011). Gross motor development and physical activity in kindergarten age children. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 6, 33–36. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.3109/17477166.2011.613661

BBC. (n.d.a). Performance feedback in sport - advantages and disadvantages Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztwkqty/revision/3

BBC. (n.d.b). Performance feedback in sport – types of feedback. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zx84wxs/revision/1

Saemi, E., Porter, J. M., Ghotbi-Varzaneh, A., Zarghami, M., & Maleki, F. (2012). Knowledge of results after relatively good trials enhances self-efficacy and motor learning. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 13(4), 378-382. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.12.008

Vieira, M. M., Ugrinowitsch, H., Gallo, L. G., Pinto Carvalho, M. F. S., Fonseca, M. A., & Benda, R. N. B. (2014). Effects of summary knowledge of results in motor skills acquisition. Revista de Psicologia Del Deporte, 23(1), 9-14