Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Distribution of Practice

Defining the Concept and Its Importance

Distribution of practice refers to the “relationship between the time effectively spent on performing a task and the time spent resting, either within a single practice session or between several practice sessions” (Leite, Ugrinowitsch, Carvalho, & Benda, 2013, p. 20). In other words, learning is spread out in a number of short sessions with breaks in between. Distribution of practice over several days is the most important factor affecting motor skill learning and retention (Savion-Lemieux & Penhune, 2005). For athletes, the designated rest breaks between sessions are generally used to mentally rehearse the task or to apply the feedback received (Honeybourne, 2006). As well, rest breaks are also necessary for long duration activities. For example, swimming is a demanding sport, therefore breaks are required to prevent exhaustion. Distribution of practice is typically studied alongside mass practice. Massed practice is the continuous practice of one skill with minimal to no rest (Donovan & Radosevich, 1999). However, many studies suggest that distributed practice is a more effective approach than its counterpart.

Distribution of practice is important for educators to program and efficiently distribute practice sessions for children. By being able to manipulate distribution of practice, motor learning development is maximized. The early childhood years are the most critical period in the development of gross motor skills. At this stage, they are the most susceptible to stimuli from their environment. Young and new learners are more likely to have higher success in motor skill acquisition if proper practice distribution is followed. (Rider & Abdulahad, 1991). In the middle childhood years, it is most beneficial to strengthen these skills via continual practice (Bredin, 2020). During these sensitive time periods, distribution of practice should be followed.

Teachers should strive to have short and efficient sessions with adequate breaks to ensure that students are absorbing the material. Studies have shown there are advantages in distributed practices of basic memory tasks using words or pictures, in motor skill acquisition, and with more complex relevant materials (Benjamin & Tullis, 2010). Therefore, providing children with adequately spaced practice will help develop their motor and cognitive learning skills.

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

Distributed practice plays a role in childhood development by enhancing motor and cognitive skills. Children need to acquire the basic concepts and principles that govern human movement as well as the capability to move. In addition, fundamental concepts and principles of movement facilitate the acquisition of gross motor skills (Bredin, 2020). How one gains proficiency in motor movement is by practice. Learning anything requires repeatedly performing an activity or skill to improve or maintain proficiency. Thus, practice provides opportunities for children to gain proficiency in fundamental movements. Practicing in distributed conditions allows one to learn new skills better (Rider & Abdulahad, 1991). Also, it is effective in teaching less skilled or less motivated children. When children are developing new skills, it would be better to implement sessions that are short with breaks in between to prevent them from being fatigue and demotivated. Children often get distracted, therefore distributed conditions will allow them to focus more when performing tasks that are repetitive. Studies with older children and adults indicate that time-distributed, variable practice is beneficial for motor learning. Moreover, time-distributed practice showed to be more effective than massed practice because the rest periods allowed learning to be consolidated, relieve fatigue, and renew motivation (Adolph et al., 2012) Gross motor skills are more likely to benefit from distributed practice (Honeybourne, 2006). Early childhood is the period where learning gross motor skills are the greatest. Therefore, when teaching infants how to walk, or teaching children how to swim, distributed practices will enhance skill learning. Through practice, children will become more confident in their motor and cognitive skills allowing them to excel in sports or school. Structured play refers to activity that is planned and instructional. It facilitates developing health-related fitness and improves object control skills (Stodden & Goodway, 2007; cited in Brewer, 2018).  Unstructured play refers to activity that is independent from rules and allows children to explore their outside environment without restrictions. This can enhance creativity, self-expression and cooperation within a child (Spark, 2016; cited in Brewer, 2018).

A contemporary issue that affects distribution of practice are time restrictions and availability. Opposed to massed practices where sessions are done without rest, distributed practices are done in short sessions with breaks in between. For instance, when applied to a sport setting space or equipment may not be available for distributed practice to take place. Also, the availability of trainers and trainees need to be considered. It is easier to schedule, transport, or lodge trainers and trainees for single sessions than when shorter practice sessions are distributed over more days (Shea et al., 2000). Because massed practice is easier to schedule, it becomes more prevalent. This can have an effect on the development of children where they become fatigued or demotivated. Thus, fatigue can lead to injuries and demotivation can lead to drop out. Children spend most of their time in school -- developing skills at a young age from sitting down/studying to running around playing outside amongst their peers. Physical play facilitates behavioural regulation capabilities from a positive impact in a classroom setting. This refers to controlling the integration of cognitive processes like attention, working memory and inhibitory control. Children demonstrate more focus in school study environments after they have engaged in free active play during recess/lunch breaks (Bredin, 2020). That being said, it is responsible for childhood care takers to take action in their learning environment for the children – this must include physical activity.

Another contemporary issue is the effects of distributed practice on discrete skills. Studies have reported that distributed practice was better for acquisition and retention for continuous tasks. However, massed practice has better effects for discrete tasks such as kicking, throwing, or hitting (Panchuk et al., 2013). When performing a discrete task, massed practice was beneficial such that “there is less fatigue so the learner can practice a great number of repetitions in a short amount of time” (Panchuk et al., 2013, p. 752). The study done by Panchuk et al. (2013) examined the effects of massed and distributed practice on the learning of a discrete skill, passing a handball. The results suggested that massed practice of a discrete sport skill may lead to better retention of learning over a two-week period (Panchuk et al., 2013). This is important to consider when deciding to implement a distributed practice when teaching children. Depending on the motor skills that are being worked on, distributed practices are better for continuous tasks whereas massed practices are better for discrete tasks. However, if a child has developed bad habits through massed practice, then continuously working on the skill will reinforce those habits. Thus, distributed practice should come in to play to gain feedback on fixing those bad habits.

It is important for educators to understand the effects of distribution of practice. Depending on the situation, educators must know when it should be applied in the motor development of children. Early childhood educators can strongly guide children’s activity levels, play quality, and the type of outdoor playtime (Copeland et al., 2012; cited in Martyniuk et al., 2014). Furthermore, higher levels of physical activity can be prevalent in their lifespan if the childhood educators provide these positive encouragements (Brown et al., 2009; cited in Martyniuk et al., 2014), appropriate equipment, participate in active play with pre-schoolers, and create opportunities for structured and unstructured play (Pate et al., 2008; cited in Martyniuk et al., 2014). It is essential for childhood educators to understand when it is best to administer distributed practice or massed practice in promoting active behaviour, alongside with structured or unstructured play.

Practical Applications

Activity #1: Tag

An example of unstructured play that would facilitate distributed practice, would be Tag. Tag is a gender-neutral game that both anyone can enjoy (Gao, Zhang & Podlog, 2013;2014). Pre-school children (ages 2-5) struggle with body awareness, where less than 70% of children can identify all major body parts (Bredin, 2020). Incorporating this unstructured play during 'play time', where children are able to understand various limb position can increase the opportunity to enhance understanding of what the body can do. Gaining these capabilities allow for the emergence of new motor skill movements (Bredin, 2020).

There are various forms of Tag as well. Each variation of tag allows for deliberate play enhancing creativity and sampling. As the child understands the concept of tag, they can brainstorm and come up with new ideas in the game, promoting independent learning and creativity. Each week can implement a new version of tag that can enhance different sensory-perceptual development--once the child understands the basic sensory-perceptual concepts through body awareness, emergence of new motor skills may occur. The similar versions of tag can allow the child to master various forms of skills (non-locomotory, locomotor, manipulative). For example, freeze tag can increase balance, stability and coordination as the child must freeze in the position they were tagged in. Bandaid tag can enhance body concept, where the child must identify and touch the body part they've been tagged in to create a bandaid.

As the game is played, the participants will essentially rotate between the positions. If there are multiple players in the game, certain participants will get to rest if the tagger is locked in on one participant. This is a simple way to ensure that all children are participating. The shuffling of different positions allows children to experience difference objectives, as well as increase relationship awareness amongst their peers (Bredin, 2020). The changes in their environment encourage participants to move out of their comfort zone and increase their creativity levels (Brewer, 2018).

Distributing this form of play during 'play time' can not only increase the likelihood for emergence of new motor skill development, rather the unstructured and limitless variations to this game can too increase creativity levels and independence. More benefits include no equipment requirements other than a safe environment to facilitate the game, as well as no limit to the amount of people that can play nor is there a time cap for the activity.

Activity #2: Ice Hockey

From a young age, children can start learning their favourite sport at the young. This type of structured play has various positions that can promote optimal growth in multiple motor movement skills. With two teams playing against each other, there are three positions on the rink: goalies, forwards and defence men. There is a maximum of 5 teammates on the ice. To ensure the benefits of practice distribution, rotations are used to substitute people in and out of the game. In distributing various motor skills intended to the game, like a proper stride where they can enhance locomotor skills and understand body awareness, as well as relationship awareness. Another motor skill includes a slap shot. Children must learn the importance of effort awareness on the speed of skating down the rink, as well as the amount of force to drive the puck into the net. Alternating different motor skills throughout a specific time frame per week can allow efficiency in emergence of new skills (Bredin, 2020), as well as distribute them to avoid fatigue effects. Switching up positions can promote fairness in relaying each skill as well as an opportunity for administering each new skill they've learnt. Once a skill is acquired, performance can be mastered through appropriate discipline and proper feedback. The breaks are also used for rest, mental rehearsing, and getting feedback on their performance out on the ice (Honeybourne, 2006).

As the child begins to understand essential components to the game as well as increase sensory-perceptual development, the activity may be mass practiced. Depending on that skill subset of the session, the individual can practice discrete skills. For the goalie, they can practice continuous blocks to maximize the amount of repetitions in a session. For a forward position, they can practice the amount of force, time and flow in getting the puck towards the opponent's net (effort awareness). This type of structured play can also be as effective if the coaches provide various important motor skills in a distributive manner. As distribution of practice over several days is the most important factor affecting motor skill learning and retention (Savion-Lemieux & Penhune, 2005), upcoming athletes can practice on mastering motor skills with reduced fatigue effects.

Summary

Distribution of practice refers to the spacing between practice sessions and the relative rest periods. For longer and more continuous tasks, practice is the most effective when they are spaced apart, either through longer water breaks or separating training for the same skill onto multiple days. For discrete skills, (i.e., throwing a ball), more benefits are seen with massed practice. It is encouraged that children are given plenty of rest to reflect on the skills they have learned, and the feedback received. Further efforts to educate parents/ care providers are necessary to ensure wholistic growth of the child.

References

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Bredin, S. (2020). Module One: Play. University of British Columbia.

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Gao, Z., Zhang, P., & Podlog, L. W. (2013;2014;). Examining elementary school children’s level of enjoyment of traditional tag games vs. interactive dance games. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 19(5), 605-613. doi:10.1080/13548506.2013.845304

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Rider, A. R., & Abdulahad, D. T. (1991). Effects of Massed Versus Distributed Practice on Gross and Fine Motor Proficiency of Educable Mentally Handicapped Adolescents. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, 219-224.

Savion-Lemieux, T. & Penhune, V. B. (2005). The Effects of Practice and Delay on Motor Skill Learning and Retention. Experimental Brain Research, 161: 423-431 DOI 10.1007/s00221-004-2085-9.

Zeng, N., Ayyub, M., Sun, H., Wen, X., Xiang, P., & Gao, Z. (2017). Effects of physical activity on motor skills and cognitive development in early childhood: A systematic review. BioMed Research International, 2017, 1-13. doi:10.1155/2017/2760716