Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Cooperative Games
Defining the Concept and Its Importance
Throughout their childhood, children experience play through a variety of channels, one of which is by playing games. Certain games must be implemented by educators and coaches with the goal of stimulating healthy childhood development and motor behaviour skills. This can be done through cooperative games, which emphasize the need for positive and like-minded relationships in order to achieve a common goal (Toppe et al., 2019). In contrast to competitive games, which focus on individual efforts toward individual goals, cooperative games focus on how each child will impact the group outcome and experience the same result together. Researchers have studied cooperative games using the Social Interdependence Theory, which states that the way in which goals are structured establishes how others react (Toppe et al., 2019). This in turn creates an outcome, which in this case is achieving a shared goal by cooperating physically and socially rather than alone or competitively (Toppe et al., 2019). Furthermore, cooperative games are important as they produce more dynamic and inclusive movement experiences that ultimately fuel healthy developmental and motor patterns.
As cooperative games involve mutual reliance amongst the players to achieve the desired result, the children are constantly interacting with each other (Toppe et al., 2019). As a result, children playing cooperatively often exhibit unique problem-solving strategies and more inclusive language, in comparison to those playing competitive games (Toppe et al., 2019). In addition, these observations were also observed during their free play, whereas those who played competitive games displayed more physical aggression during these times (Toppe et al., 2019). Moreover, there are also significant motor behaviour skills that are improved as a result of these games, for example though the cooperative game “human knots”, where children try to untangle a knot formed with their arms (Carlson, 1999; GUIDE, Inc., 2020) while improving their problem-solving and strategy skills, proprioception and spatial awareness (Carlson, 1999). A more detailed description of this game and its benefits is provided in section 3: Practical applications.
Children who grow up experiencing cooperative games have the benefit of developing various motor skills while working in a collaborative manner. They learn how to problem-solve with the help of others, practice movements, and develop a pro-social attitude that is important for healthy development (Toppe et al., 2019). It is imperative that educators and coaches incorporate more opportunities for cooperative games, as research indicates they prepare children for cooperative learning through active movement experiences.
Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations
Cooperative games entail collaborating with others, both physically and socially, while relying on each other’s efforts to achieve a shared goal (Toppe et al., 2019). Knowing when children are ready to participate in certain games or activities is mainly determined by their age, although individuals may go through developmental pathways at different times or speeds (Bredin, 2020a). Research has reported that actions of children ages 2-5 in social play relate to how advanced they are emotionally and socially (Bredin, 2020a). Ultimately, the ability for children to engage in cooperative play emerges around ages 4-5.5 (Bredin, 2020a). Children under the age of 4 tend to not be developmentally ready to engage in this high level of social play as the tendencies of sharing with others, ability to display empathy, and level of understanding and following of game rules are not yet fully developed; therefore social play is generally solitary-based or observant from birth to age 2 (Pelly, 2020; Bredin, 2020a). A study was conducted on 5 year olds to test to see whether cooperative games reflect positive social behaviours displayed through empathy, when compared to competitive and solitary play (Toppe et al., 2019). When the prosocial behaviour tendencies were compared to the ones prior to the intervention, children who were in the cooperative game group exhibited more empathy with unknown individuals (Toppe et al., 2019). Having the ability to display empathy and trust, positively socialize by working with others, and resolve conflicts is important for children to acquire as it allows them to continue to progress along the social play continuum, as well as create meaningful relationships when they are older (Pelly, 2020).
Cooperative games additionally benefit children’s movement experiences by enhancing performance of movement through the practice of gross and fine motor skills. As a child first begins to engage in cooperative games, they may start with less complex games, such as “telephone” where every child is sitting in a circle and the first player will whisper a word to the person beside them, who will then whisper it to the next person and so on, with the intention of having the last person say the word correctly (Carlson, 1999). Since cooperative games involve interacting physically and socially with others, as the child progresses in this level of play, locomotor and non-locomotor skills are also supplemented. This can be shown in the game “chain tag” where each child that is tagged must hold hands and form a long line (Carlson, 1999; The PE Shed, 2017). This game promotes gross non-locomotor and locomotor skills of running, twisting, balancing and turning (Bredin, 2020c). An in-depth description of this game and its benefits is provided below in section 3: Practical applications.
Although there are countless different opportunities for children to engage in play, there are underlying threats towards the level of free choice in their play (Hewes, 2006). A trend has evolved where children are more often in group environments that involve confined recreational rule-based play that focuses on a specific direction of learning (Hewes, 2006). Although cooperative games have the aspect of working towards a formalized goal, this does not mean that they are always structured, as seen in activities such as building a snow fort (Pelly, 2020). Activities that are initiated by children rather than authoritative figures are important in that it allows them to acquire intrinsic motivation while focusing on the process of play itself in order to maximize the learning benefits (Hewes, 2006). Another issue that educators, parents and coaches should be aware of is the influx of technology as a form of play (Hewes, 2006). Technology limits the frequency of exposure to outdoor environments where there are numerous natural playscapes that offer benefits to children such as peer experimentation with nature and how to adjust themselves in different environments (Bredin, 2020b). It is difficult to acquire the benefits cooperative games by using technology, benefits such as spatial awareness development, knowledge regarding the laws of force and directionality, increases in physical development and the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills (Bredin, 2020b). This leads to another contemporary issue limiting the potential for development of these skills, which is that a greater emphasis is placed on education at an early age, rather than on the development of fundamental skills that occur instinctively through play (Hewes, 2006). School and education are important for children, however it is of equal importance for them to know how to move their bodies and adjust to dynamic social and physical scenarios that occur actively in every-day life (Hewes, 2006).
Practical Applications
Many games require cooperation between players, for example “human knot” and “chain tag” mentioned above.
Human knot
The human knot is a common cooperative game played by kids and adults alike, often for enjoyment or team-building purposes (GUIDE Inc., 2020). This game can be played indoors or outdoors, and does not require any equipment, making it easy to play in a variety of settings. One round of this game lasts approximately 5 to 10 minutes, depending on the complexity of the knot and the number of players. The goal of the game is to successfully untangle a knot created by players’ arms. To create the knot, players start by standing in a small circle. Each player reaches their hands into the middle, and grasps the hands of two different players across from them. After forming the knot, players must collaborate by climbing over, under, or through each other’s arms to untie the knot without letting go of the hands they are holding (GUIDE Inc., 2020). When the knot is successfully undone, players will end up in a large circle, holding hands with the two players beside them.
The standard version of the game described above is probably most appropriate for those aged 6 and older. Cooperative play does not emerge until 4 to 5.5 years of age (Bredin, 2020a), so by the age of 6, children should have appropriately developed the cooperative and social skills, ability to follow rules (Play and Playground Encyclopedia, 2020) and spacial awareness necessary to play the game (Bredin, 2020d). However, the human knot can be modified to accommodate for different age groups and proficiency levels. For example, the standard number of players is around 6-10 (GUIDE Inc., 2020), but altering the number of players will change the difficulty of the game. A group with fewer players will create a knot that is easier to untie, whereas adding more players will create a more challenging knot. Another possible modification is to blindfold some players, and have the players who are able to see give them directions to untie the knot. An even more challenging version of this game would be to ask participants to untie the knot without talking, promoting non-verbal communication.
Regardless of which version is played, this game helps develop concepts of body awareness like body schema, crossing the midline, and directionality to navigate through players’ arms (Bredin, 2020d). Proprioception is particularly relevant when playing the modified game where players have their eyes closed, as they cannot see where their arms are. The human knot also promotes spacial awareness and relationship awareness (Bredin, 2020c), as kids explore their self-space and interact with the other players within it. They are challenged to know the amount of space they have, the directions and levels in which they must move, and which patterns of movement will help them solve the task (Bredin, 2020c). Furthermore, this game allows players to develop non-locomotor gross motor skills, as well as stability and coordination while untangling the knot. They also practice movement planning, problem solving, and verbal or non-verbal communication depending on which version is played.
Chain tag
Chain tag is a cooperative variation of the classic game of tag (The PE Shed, 2017). There is no equipment needed for this game, but it does require a large indoor or outdoor space to run around. Chain tag is typically played in groups of over 10 people (Playworks, 2020). At the start of the game, one player is chosen to be “it”, and all other players must run away to avoid getting tagged by this player. When an individual is tagged, they hold hands with the person who is “it” to form a chain. As more people are tagged, the chain gets longer and it becomes more difficult for children to coordinate their actions with those around them. Only the first and last individuals attached to the chain are allowed to tag other players. The game ends when all players are part of the chain.
This game is most appropriate for children aged 5 and older. As previously mentioned, cooperative abilities develop between the ages of 4 and 5.5 (Bredin, 2020a), so children younger than that would struggle with this game. Compared to the human knot game, the rules of chain tag are more straightforward and the game itself requires less strategy and planning, so children can engage in chain tag at the younger age of 5. Furthermore, although chain tag requires some degree of coordination and body awareness, it does not rely as heavily on these abilities compared to the human knot. However, like most games, chain tag can be modified to accommodate for different age groups and levels of development. Including more players and reducing the size of the playing area can make the game easier for the person who is “it”, while reducing the number of players and increasing the playing area will make it more challenging for the player who is “it”. Another way to increase the difficulty of the game is to have kids in the chain link arms instead of hold hands. This will bring kids closer together, making them pay more attention to their own movements and their coordination with the players around them. There could also be two players designated as “it” at the start of the game, leading to the formation of two shorter chains.
There are many developmental benefits to playing chain tag. First off, being a cooperative game, it promotes team work and socialization between players. Children develop relationship awareness by moving with the other players in the chain and effort awareness by matching their speed so that the chain moves as a unit (Bredin, 2020c). Some sections of the chain may move in slightly different directions, causing the child to develop their stability and balance while moving. Furthermore, this game promotes gross locomotor skills like running, gross non-locomotor skills like twisting, balancing and turning (Bredin, 2020d), as well as fine motor skills like grasping. Having fun with other kids may promote their development of prosocial attitudes (Toppe et al., 2019), and may lead kids to associate physical activity with enjoyment, increasing the likelihood that they will be physically active in the future (Hirvensalo & Lintunen, 2011).
Summary
Cooperative games emphasize the importance of collaboration between children to achieve a common goal rather than individual competition. Children who engage in cooperative play will develop problem-solving skills, positive social attitudes, and movement experiences. Age is a key determinant in evaluating whether a child is prepared to engage in cooperative play. Non-locomotor and locomotor cooperative games can be utilized to practice gross and fine motor movement. Structured activities initiated by adults and technology hinder the learning of these skills whereas encouraging forms of cooperative play will teach body collaboration in social scenarios.
References
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Bredin, S. (2020c). KIN 355 Module 4: Developing Fundamentals of Movement. Retrieved from: https://canvas.ubc.ca/courses/60344/pages/module-4-overview?module_item_id=2120822
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