Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Basic Movement Skills: Non-locomotor: Stretching

Defining the Concept and Its Importance

The non-locomotor skill "stretching" is defined by the outward movement at the body's joints that make the body larger by moving away from the body on a "vertical, horizontal or diagonal plane" (Bailey, 1990; Bredin, 2020). As the child stretches they are receiving sensory input from their “joint capsules and ligaments, tendon receptors, muscle spindles, connective tissue, and vestibular receptors” (Bredin, 2020). A non-locomotor skill (also known as a stability or axial movement) is a gross motor movement where the body remains in contact with the ground or apparatus (BC’s New Curriculum, 2020; Bredin, 2020). Stretching is a stability movement; stability is defined as one’s capability to adjust their body with compensating movements to maintain a position or execute a purposeful movement while the force of gravity acts upon them (Bredin, 2020; Rudd et al., 2015).

Non-locomotor skills are part of the building blocks that make up the fundamental movement skills (FMS) that are crucial for developing proficient lifelong movement competence (BC’s New Curriculum, 2020; Bredin, 2020; Rudd et al., 2015). Because the composition of a child’s body changes greatly in a short period of time, stretching skills should be encouraged at each developmental stage. For example, stability is challenged when the center of gravity moves outside the base of support, like when the weight of an infant’s head, in comparison to their body, creates a much higher center of gravity than a young child’s head does (Bredin, 2019; Gabbard, 2018). Stretching skills are crucial to acquire from a young age when independent walking and postural control is learned, a time when it is a great challenge to keep one’s center of gravity (head) within the base of support (wide leg stance) (Bredin, 2019; Gabbard, 2018; Rudd et al., 2015). Body control and postural control are crucial for the mastery of many other gross movements like jumping, hopping and running (Høgskulen på Vestlandet, 2017). The role of an early childhood educator (ECE), teacher or coach is to recognize the individual constraints of a child’s body and then create an environment where the child can move in ways that overcoming the challenge of gravity leads to gaining greater control of their bodies (Bredin, 2019; Gabbard, 2018). For example, making a game of stretching is a fun way to help encourage body concept by incorporating naming the body part or limb being stretched (Bredin, 2020; Høgskulen på Vestlandet, 2017; Rudd et al., 2015). Because fundamental movement skill acquisition is not automatic and must be developed at age-appropriate time periods, it is crucial that any person working with children within this time period understand how to encourage the emergence of these motor skills (Bredin, 2019). Bredin (2019) also communicates that anyone working with children should be aware that there are critical periods of time where the child’s brain is highly sensitive to FMS learning, and it is a crucial time for the brain to form these neural pathways. For gross motor skills, this critical period is typically from birth to six years old; if a child does not acquire these motor skills within this time range, mastery may be attained later in life but not to the potential that the child’s genetics may have allowed (Bredin, 2019).

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

When a child stretches, they are learning the basic movement concepts like space awareness; specifically personal or self-space. Personal space is important for the child to understand because it is a foundation for which more complex concepts, like extensions (eg. tennis swing) can be built upon (Bredin, 2020). Body awareness is a sensory-perceptual concept that contributes to space awareness as the child learns the different shapes their bodies can make and where their body parts are in relation to each other (body schema). Because proprioception is a component of this, there is no better way to develop this sense than moving and stretching in different ways (Bredin, 2020). Stretching is essential to understanding how the body can use the mechanical principles of stability. When a child acquires the capability of using the stability principles to their advantage, they create a broad foundation of body control that they will use for the mastery of movements used in sports and activities. The three stability principles are line of gravity, center of gravity and base of support. Stability is maintained when the base of support is wide, the center of gravity is low and the line of gravity runs through the center of gravity (Bredin, 2020). Stretching skills help the child to understand how they can manipulate their body to attain stability when their base of support is reduced, their center of gravity moves outside their body or when their line of gravity falls outside of their base of support (Bredin, 2020; Rudd et al., 2015). When movements are executed contrary to these principles, the quality of the movement decreases and progression of qualitative movements are inhibited (Bredin, 2020). Understanding the basic mechanical principles of movement is important for ECE’s, teachers and coaches to know because they can create games, activities and environments that work with the child within these principles, instead of against them. An example of a game or activity that could aid in the development of stretching and stability include a variety of modified yoga activities that encourage these crucial developmental skills.

Stability skills are the most basic of the FMS, yet they seem to be the most understudied. Underdeveloped stability skills may impact movement competence and affect a child’s capabilities for complex movement skills later in life (Gabbard, 2018; Rudd et al., 2016). Two studies by Rudd et al. bring attention to how stability skills are often overlooked in research and lack the attention for assessment in children the way that FMS like locomotor and manipulation skills get (Rudd et al., 2015; 2016). Rudd et al. (2015) emphasize that the common stability tests that are done at the grassroots level, as well as used in research, are limited to static balance tests and these do not measure the dynamic and task specific movements that require stability skills. Therefore, Rudd et al.(2015) studied and assessed children aged 6-10 on how well they performed three stability exercises (log rolling, rock, and back support). Their study included children who had gymnastic training and children that did not and found that the children who did gymnastics outperformed the groups with significant differences in their stability skills. Gymnastic training relies on the use of sensory information and motor activity to help maintain postural control under a variety of specific movement tasks, and children who engage in gymnastics at a younger age have greater postural control and stability skills (Garcia et al., 2011). Children who engage in gymnastics are more proficient at taking in visual information to "improve the performance of their postural control" (Garcia et al., 2011). Because there is evidence that gymnastic participation early on leads to superior stability skills, gymnastic style play and basic movement concepts should be encouraged and non-locomotor skills like stretching, should be overlooked (Rudd et al., 2015). It is common to think of play as locomotor skills, but it is essential for intermediaries to find ways for children to use basic movement skills like stretching in play so they progressively learn better stability skill acquisition (Rudd et al., 2015).

Research in the area of childhood health shows that internationally children are more sedentary than ever before, engage in physical activity less and with less intensity, their ability to perform fundamental motor skills is low, and obesity prevalence has increased (The Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020; Robinson, 2010; Rudd et al., 2016). Robinson’s studies found that children with higher FMS and higher perceived physical competence (a child’s own belief of their motor abilities) participate in physical activity more than children who are lower in those two factors (2010). Engaging in physical activity everyday is important for healthy living and allows for movement skills and physical literacy to develop (BC's New Curriculum, 2020). Robinson believes that the connection between FMS and perceived physical competence should be considered when designing movement programs and activities in preschool aged children (2010). Additionally, the findings of Robinson’s work show that the role of teachers and coaches is important because not only do children need experiences that challenge their FMS abilities, they need encouragement, direction and feedback (2010).

Practical Applications

Stretching and stability are crucial components of a child's development of FMS. It is important that educators and coaches are aware that development is rapid during childhood, and therefore stretching and stability skills should be encouraged consistently. Stability and stretching are often overlooked components of childhood development and are in need for greater attention. Yoga is a great activity that encourages the development of stretching and stability for young children. An example of a yoga activity for children is Yoga Dice. An activity outside of the yoga environment that is also suitable for the development of stretching and stability is the mirror stretch game.

Yoga Dice

This is an example of a well-fitting stretching and stability activity for children. The purpose of this activity is that it encourages the practice of stretching, stability, and body and space awareness. It is great for children who are developing these skills. Yoga Dice is also a great activity because it can be suitable for a variety of age ranges. The target age range can be 5-12 depending on the modifications within the activity. The space needed for Yoga Dice is very adaptable. This activity can be outside or inside, it just needs to be in a large space where children are able to spread out.

Yoga Dice is a very simple activity with simple instructions, which is why it is suitable for a variety of ages. The equipment needed for this activity includes a yoga mat for each child, but are not necessary, just based on preference. A set of dice for each group, as well as a set of printed off, numbered yoga stretches and poses are needed. To begin this activity, the children are split into small groups. Each group will receive a set of dice and printed yoga stretches. One child in the group will roll the dice and find the printed card that corresponds to that number. All the children in the group will then perform this pose or stretch for a count of ten. Each child in the group will have a turn to roll the dice. This game is suitable for all ages and can be modified. To make this more challenging, the children could hold the poses longer, or create a sequence of poses that builds off each other, incorporating more poses with each turn. To make it easier, the children can hold the poses for a shorter period of time or can simply be given a different set of printed poses that are easier. This activity will help the children learn the basic movement concepts such as space awareness and personal space, which is an important building block for future, more complex concepts. Throughout this activity, children will need to constantly be aware of their body in space, as well as enable them to learn about overcoming the challenge of gravity to increase their stability.

Mirror Stretch

The purpose of this activity is to encourage children to stretch and increase their stretching knowledge. Throughout this activity, children will also learn a component of body awareness-proprioception. They will learn this through moving and stretching in different ways. This activity will aid children in understanding how they can manipulate their body while remaining in a stable position. The target age range for this activity is 7-12, because it requires the child to have previous knowledge on stretching, usually stemming from previous PE classes. This activity is great in a variety of situations because it has no equipment and can be done anywhere as long as there is an adequate amount of space for children to spread out.

The instructions for this activity are straightforward. Each child will find a partner and stand face-to-face. One partner will be the leader and the other the follower. The activity will begin by the leader performing a stretch. The job of the follower is to "mirror" every movement that the leader performs. This is a simple activity, however modifications can be made. To make it easier, the educator can be the leader while the children mirror the adult. To make it challenging, the children can be instructed to name the body parts involved in the stretch that they are performing. This activity increases the development of stretching specifically while remaining stable. It also incorporates social skills, considering that the children have to communicate with their partner, either in a verbal or non-verbal way.

Summary

Stretching is an important building block for fundamental movement skills that are essential for obtaining proficient movement competency (BC’s New Curriculum, 2020; Bredin, 2020; Rudd et al., 2015). Stretching can help with independent walking and postural control in young children (Bredin, 2020). Ignoring development of stability skills will negatively impact movement competence and skill levels of complex movements later in life (Gabbard, 2018; Rudd et al., 2016). As childhood obesity is on the rise, it is essential that parents and teachers work with children on stretching as is it one of the first steps to becoming physically active, engaging in physical activity everyday is not only healthy but helps with the development of movement skills and physical literacy (BC's New Curriculum, 2020).

References

Bailey, G. W. (1990). A K-2 physical education handbook designed for use by elementary classroom teachers. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. Retrieved from https://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/303869559?accountid=14656

BC’s New Curriculum. (2020). Physical and Health Education 6. Retrieved from https://curriculum.gov.bc.ca/curriculum/physical-health-education/6

Bredin, S. (2019). Module 2: Critical periods. KIN 284 Lifespan Motor Development. School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia.

Bredin, S. (2020). Module 4: Developing fundamental movements. KIN 355 Movement Experiences for Young Children. School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia.

Centers for Disease Control. (2020). Childhood obesity causes and consequences. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/causes.html

Gabbard C.P. (2018). Lifelong Motor Development (7th ed.), Philadelphia, PA. Wolters Kluwer

Garcia, C., Barela, J. A., Viana, A. R., & Barela, A. M. F. (2011). Influence of gymnastics training on the development of postural control. Neuroscience Letters, 492(1), 29-32. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2011.01.047

Høgskulen på Vestlandet - HVL (2017, October 3). Motor Skills Development in Children 1 to 6 years [Video]. Youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v0d5WQH8guQ

Robinson, L. E. (2011). The relationship between perceived physical competence and fundamental motor skills in preschool children. Child:Care, Health & Development, 37(4), 589-596. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2010.01187.x

Rudd, J. R., Barnett, L. M., Butson, M. L., Farrow, D., Berry, J., & Polman, R. C. J. (2015). Fundamental movement skills are more than run, throw and catch: The role of stability skills. PLoS One, 10(10)

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1371/journal.pone.0140224

Rudd, J. R., Barnett, L. M., Farrow, D., Berry, J., Borkoles, E., & Polman, R. (2016). Effectiveness of a 16 week gymnastics curriculum at developing movement competence in children. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20(2), 164-169. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2016.06.013