Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Agility

Defining the Concept and Its Importance

Agility can be defined as the motor capability to control body movements in response to changes in direction (João et al., 2014). This complex movement action consists of developing proficiency in coordination, speed and balance skills (João et al., 2014). This definition can be further expanded to describe the rapid deceleration and acceleration of movement in response to environmental stimuli (Yanci et a., 2015). The acquisition of agility is significantly related to executive functioning development throughout childhood (Aoyama & Imai-Matsumura, 2020). Therefore, it is important for early childhood professionals to understand the motor behaviour pattern of agility to best facilitate healthy physical and intellectual development (Aoyama & Imai-Matsumura, 2020). The following research studies examine how agility and cognitive abilities impact one another throughout adolescence.

In a study conducted by Aoyama and Imai-Matsumura (2020), the correlational relationship of executive functioning on agility and comprehensive physical ability in kindergarteners was examined. The most influential cognitive skills included “inhibition, spatial working memory and auditory working memory” (Aoyama & Imai-Matsumura, 2020). Inhibition is defined as being able to suppress immediate responses to specific stimuli whereas working memory involves the ability to use and store information (Aoyama & Imai-Matsumura, 2020). The many components within agility utilize these skills in controlling speed and influence the ability to perform a series of actions accurately (Aoyama & Imai-Matsumura, 2020). Thus, these executive functioning skills are essential in promoting effective movement patterns.

Conversely, Alesi, Bianco, Luppina, Palma and Pepi (2016) reported improvements in higher cognitive functioning from a six-month Football Exercise Program. There were many movement patterns involved within the structured sport setting of football including jumping, running, grasping, throwing and more (Alesi et al., 2016). Therefore, complex movement opportunities within this training program stimulated the participants’ inhibition, attention, planning and working memory capabilities (Alesi et al., 2016). The open nature of this sport also required children to examine environmental factors and social interactions to produce the best performance outcome (Alesi et al., 2016). As a result, this study noted that children who participated in the exercise program showed notable improvements in agility and higher cognitive skills compared to the sedentary control group (Alesi et al., 2016). Therefore, by observing movement patterns, teachers and parents can gain a greater understanding of motor development and intellectual capabilities within children.

Throughout childhood and adolescence age periods there are rapid physiological and cognitive changes occurring (Bredin, 2020). For this reason, the stimulation of the prefrontal cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia is important during the early stages of development (Alesi et al., 2016). In this way, cognitive functioning and motor development skills simultaneously impact one another. This emphasizes the integrating exercise activities that are enjoyable and require higher cognitive functioning (Alesi et al., 2016). This means that simple exercises are not as impactful as activities that are challenging and exciting for the child (Alesi et al., 2016). Consequently, early childhood educators can implement agility training and examine performance observations to influence positive cognitive, physical and behavioural outcomes for children (Aoyama & Imai-Matsumura, 2020).  

Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations

The fundamental motor skill of agility significantly impacts gross motor development during critical childhood growth periods (Azeem & Tanveer, 2015). Children within this pre-pubertal age category have optimal development potential in response to physical activity (Azeem & Tanveer, 2015). Training within this age period maximizes physical capabilities of coordination skills, aerobic capacity, muscular strength and more (Azeem & Tanveer, 2015). The specific gross motor actions of galloping, leaping, horizontal jumping and sliding can be strengthened through agility training (Azeem & Tanveer, 2015). Agility also promotes neuromuscular integration between musculoskeletal and neural systems within the body (Azeem & Tanveer, 2015). This is because rapid, multidirectional body movements require effective sensory information processing skills to produce appropriate motor outcomes (Azeem & Tanveer, 2015). Thus, children can learn how to control the mechanics of movement capabilities and joint stability through agility-focused exercises (Azeem & Tanveer, 2015).

However, in recent years a significant increase in sedentary behaviour among children have led to the decrease of motor skill capabilities among youth (João et al., 2014). This also negatively impacts cognitive functions within children including attention and learning skills (Syväoja, Tammelin, Ahonen, Kankaanpää & Kantomaa, 2014). National health initiatives recommend approximately 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous daily exercise throughout the week (Johnson, Salzberg & Stevenson, 2011). Yet, according to data analyzed from the Canadian Health Measures Survey only 7% of the adolescent population fulfill this requirement (Tremblay et al., 2011). This results in an increase in health conditions such as obesity, type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome (Schoeppe et al., 2017). The primary cause of these threats to healthy cognitive and physical development is the substantial increase in use of technology such as smartphones and tablets (Schoeppe et al., 2017).

The following research studies further emphasize the harmful impacts of increased screen time among children. In a study conducted by Tremblay et. al. (2011), examined the negative effects of sedentary behaviour through extended periods of television viewing. The data results indicated “unfavourable body composition, decreased fitness, lowered scores for self esteem and pro social behaviour and decreased academic achievement” within the adolescent population (Tremblay et al., 2011). In addition, this scholarly article notes different intervention strategies that can be used to replace sedentary behaviour with physical activity such as interrupting sedentary behaviour, population-based interventions or public health initiatives (Tremblay et al., 2011). Furthermore, research directed by Syväoja et al. (2014), emphasized sedentary behaviour and screen time negatively impacting cognitive development among children. This includes poor academic performance, impulse control, working memory and more (Syväoja et al., 2014).

It is also important to note that lower socioeconomic status indicate increased likelihood of children being exposed to excessive screen time (Tandon et al., 2012). Interestingly, within this research study, around 50% of children of lower income families had easier access to a television or video game system compared to higher income family households (Tandon et al., 2012). This is mainly because lower socioeconomic families are less likely to live in a safe neighbourhood and have resources to alternative extracurricular activities (Tandon et al., 2012). The level of education acquired by parents also impacts the family’s ability to understand the importance of physical exercise promoted by health initiatives (Tandon et al., 2012). Moreover, lower income parents may misinterpret and devalue the negative associations with screen time due to manipulative advertising strategies utilized by technology companies (Tandon et al., 2012). For this reason, promoting exercise must be flexible and inclusive of external contextual factors that uniquely impact each individual family dynamic.

Ultimately, increased screen time removes the opportunity to develop the necessary basic body management and stability abilities needed to acquire agility in movement (Bredin, 2020). However, external contextual influences must also be taken into consideration when recommending physical activity strategies. The implementation of high impact exercise is necessary to combat the adverse effects of sedentary behaviour (Syväoja et al., 2014). These activities must encourage several different movement abilities to build fundamental motor skills categorized into non-locomotor, locomotor and manipulative movement abilities (Bredin, 2020). An example is primarily focusing on improving basic locomotor skills of running and jumping to promote participation in general recreational activities (Johnson et. al., 2011). This is so children can acquire proficient developmental sequences to further advance in specialized movement skills and strengthen sensory-perceptual conceptualization (Bredin, 2020).

Practical Applications

This is an image of children playing the game Cat and Mouse. Taken from vietnamvisa-easy.com

A child needs to understand how to perform intricate movement patterns and specific skills throughout their childhood and early adolescent years to promote motor and cognitive skills. During the early childhood years, there are multiple critical developmental periods that need to be completed in order to continue to the next maturation stage (Azeem & Tanveer, 2015). One essential fundamental motor skill that should be exercised is agility. As previously stated, agility is a complex movement that requires proficiency in coordination, speed, and balance (João et al., 2014). Throughout the last several decades, children have been exposed to increased amounts of screen time and engaging in fewer hours of playing and physical exercise (Tandon et al., 2012). One of the most natural ways to enhance a child’s agility is by creating games and exercises rooted in foundational movements that support agility acquisition. Not only do these games provide motor development, but they also assist in improving cognition by forcing the child to make creative decisions on their feet while simultaneously communicating with their surroundings. While certain screen time activities, such as Wii, can promote physical activity, these games listed below are specifically designed to be challenging and promote various movement abilities and motor skills. The child participating will remain stimulated and create a beneficial cognitive, physical, and behavioural outcome.

Cat and Mouse

The purpose of cat and mouse is to encourage a developing child to improve their agility by purposely creating various obstacles to challenge them. Cat and mouse is a great way to introduce agility to young children and can be easily modified to fit the situational or environmental constraints. This game is also fantastic for early childhood educators, parents, or caregivers to implement into their classrooms or households.

Target age: Ages 3+

The target age for cat and mouse can range greatly; however, it is typically created for children who are no younger than the age of three, as the child should be well established in the ability to run. This game is relatively simple to follow and does not require complex movements that a three-year-old could not complete. While saying this, modifications can be created to make the difficulty level more challenging for older audiences.

Equipment needed:

For this game, there is no equipment needed aside from participants and a free space to play. It is recommended that there are at least eight participants, as the circle should be big enough for two children to run in and out.

Instructions:

The aim of this game is for the cat to catch the mouse on the inside of the circle.

1. Pick a player to be the “mouse” and a player to be the “cat.”
2. Gather players and create a circle large enough that the cat and the mouse can run in and out of. The mouse is not allowed to stay inside the circle for longer than ten seconds.
3. When the mouse runs between two people, the participants must join hands to block the cat from passing through.
4. Once the cat tags the mouse, both participants must rejoin the circle, and two more participants may take over the roles of cat and mouse.

Modifications

1. Participant shortage: If not enough participants, chairs are a great substitution to replace participants to help form the circle.
2. Level of difficulty: To increase difficulty, try adding blindfolds into the mix. Both the cat and mouth will have blindfolds on, and instead of a circle, the remaining participants will form a straight line. The mouse will go on one side of the line, and the cat will go on the other side. The mouse must listen intently for sounds of the cat approaching them and try to escape. If the cat has not tagged the mouse within two minutes, the mouse will be declared the winner.

Weave In, Weave Out

This is an example of the Weave In, Weave Out exercise.

The purpose of this game is to promote quick change of direction at a rapid pace. During this game, participants are to quickly change the direction of their body in order to touch the cones. This promotes motor and cognitive development within the participants as they need to be able to act quickly while remaining light on their feet.

Target Age:

Typically, the target age is approximately three-to-five years old. Children should already have the foundational skills of stability and running before beginning cone drills.

Equipment needed:

Agility drills are typically played in a green space that allows for running and spaced out cones. This can look like a backyard, park, field, or anywhere containing turf (i.e., indoor rec centre). The equipment needed is very minimal, allowing for easy modifications.

1. Cones
2. Cleats

Instructions:

1. Place four cones in a straight line, approximately ten feet apart.
2. Place three cones in a straight line, ten feet apart, approximately three feet to the left of the first cones that were placed.
3. Taking quick side steps, sprint from one cone to the next.
4. As you reach the cone, bend your knees and touch the cone with your hand.
5. Remember that the goal is to be taking side steps rather than approaching the cone head on.

Modifications:

1. Cones: Any object will work. Some additional replacements for cones could look like beanbags or rocks.

Twist Ball

Twist ball is a simpler variation of football, without the intense contact and equipment. In recent studies, football exercises have been shown to improve young children’s coordination skills through exercises such as running, jumping, grasping, and throwing (Alesi et al., 2016). Typically, football related exercise involves various complex moving opportunities that allow children to obtain the fundamental movement patterns and cognitive skills needed to improve agility development and motor awareness (Alesi et al., 2016).

Target age: Ages 5+.

Fundamental movement patterns such as throwing, running, and catching can begin to occur anywhere from 18-24 months. However, more complex and mature movements (i.e., transferring weight for distance throwing) often do not strengthen until a child is aged five-to-eight (Gabbard, 2012). While saying this, twist ball is a game that can be enjoyed by any age.

Equipment needed:

The equipment needed for playing football is very minimal. There are only two required pieces of equipment for twist ball. Twist ball can be played indoors or outdoors, as long as there is space to throw a ball and run around.

1. A football, or any type of leather or rubber ball that can easily be thrown.
2. Two objects to represent the target goal area. For example, this can look like a BOSU ball or a hula hoop.

Instructions:

1. Divide participants into teams of two.
2. One team will draw for the ball.
3. There is no travelling with the ball allowed. Once the ball is in the child's hands, they have to make a pass to their teammate.
4. The child must physically hit the target with the ball in order for a point to occur. Each goal is equivalent to one point.
5. The participants of the game can decide how many points it will take to win the game.

Modifications:

1. To increase level of difficulty, decrease the amount of playing space the participants have. You can do this by placing barriers (e.g., blocks) classified as "out of bounds" zones.
2. If there are large numbers of participants, have two teams play at once and whichever team loses the first game will sit out and have the remaining teams sub in.

Summary

Agility is the ability to control bodily movements through balance and coordination in response to changes of direction. As discussed, cognitive skills, vital to success in sport, such as inhibition, attention, and working memory can be improved through the development of agility. Challenging opportunities are paramount in the development of agility. Training agility during prepubescent stages of childhood optimizes outcomes. Current sedentary trends among children are maladaptive to development. A fun way to integrate these skills is through the game, “cat and mouse” or “weave in, weave out”. To conclude, developing agility is key in acquiring proficient motor behavioural skills.

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References

Alesi, M., Bianco, A., Luppina, G., Palma, A., & Pepi, A. (2016). Improving Children's Coordinative Skills and Executive Functions. Perceptual And Motor Skills, 122(1), 27-46. doi: 10.1177/0031512515627527

Aoyama, S., & Imai-Matsumura, K. (2020). Influences of executive functions on agility and comprehensive physical ability in kindergarteners. Early Child Development And Care, 1-10. doi: 10.1080/03004430.2020.1773811

Azeem, Z., & Tanveer, B. (2015). Effect of short term agility training on the gross motor development and agility competence in pre pubertal children. International Journal of Sports Sciences and Fitness, 5(2), 195-209. Retrieved from https://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/1712319685?accountid=14656

Bredin, S. (2020). Module Four: Developing Fundamentals of Movement [Canvas Notes]. Retrieved from https://canvas.ubc.ca/

João, P., Simões, I., Alves, L., Santos, L., Pereira, A., & Mota, M. (2014). Physical activity with agility motor development for children ages 6–10. Science & Sports, 29, S48. doi: 10.1016/j.scispo.2014.08.095

Johnson, B., Salzberg, C., & Stevenson, D. (2011). A Systematic Review: Plyometric Training Programs for Young Children. Journal Of Strength And Conditioning Research, 25(9), 2623-2633. doi: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e318204caa0

Schoeppe, S., Alley, S., Rebar, A., Hayman, M., Bray, N., & Van Lippevelde, W. et al. (2017). Apps to improve diet, physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents: a review of quality, features and behaviour change techniques. International Journal Of Behavioral Nutrition And Physical Activity, 14(1). doi: 10.1186/s12966-017-0538-3

Syväoja, H., Tammelin, T., Ahonen, T., Kankaanpää, A., & Kantomaa, M. (2014). The Associations of Objectively Measured Physical Activity and Sedentary Time with Cognitive Functions in School-Aged Children. Plos ONE, 9(7), e103559. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103559

Tandon, P., Zhou, C., Sallis, J., Cain, K., Frank, L., & Saelens, B. (2012). Home environment relationships with children’s physical activity, sedentary time, and screen time by socioeconomic status. International Journal Of Behavioral Nutrition And Physical Activity, 9(1), 88. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-9-88

Tremblay, M., LeBlanc, A., Kho, M., Saunders, T., Larouche, R., & Colley, R. et al. (2011). Systematic review of sedentary behaviour and health indicators in school-aged children and youth. International Journal Of Behavioral Nutrition And Physical Activity, 8(1), 98. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-8-98

Yanci, J., Asier, L., & Juan, J. (2015). Effects of Different Agility Training Programs among First-Grade Elementary School Students. Collegium Antropologicum, 39, 87-92. Retrieved from https://web-a-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=9f2ba6f5-c79f-45e5-823b-326a8c39f189%40sdc-v-sessmgr01